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Organogenesis
Organogenesis
1st trimester
1st week
Formation of
Bilaminar Embryonic Disc
Stage 5: 7th –12th day full implantation
2nd week
Stages 6-9: Day 13-21
Somites
3rd week
Stages 10-17
12
Organogenesis
To a large degree, a cell’s location in the
developing embryo determines its fate
At some stage, every cell’s ultimate fate becomes
fixed – cell determination
A cell’s fate can be established in two ways:
1. Inheritance of cytoplasmic determinants
2. Interactions with neighboring cells
-Cell induction
13
Morphogenesis in animals involves
specific changes in cell shape, position,
and adhesion
• Changes in
cell
shape usually
involves
reorganization
of the
cytoskeleton.
• The cytoskeleton is also involved in cell
movement.
– Cell crawling is involved in convergent
extension.
• The movements of convergent extension probably
involves the extracellular matrix (ECM).
• ECM fibers may direct cell movement.
• Some ECM substances, such a
fibronectins, help cells move by
providing anchorage for crawling.
• Other ECM substances may inhibit
movement in certain directions.
• Cell adhesion molecules
(CAMs): located on cell surfaces
bind to CAMs on other cells.
–Differences in CAMs regulate
morphogenetic movement and tissue
binding.
Fig. 47.21
Fig. 47.23b
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Organizer regions.
Fig. 47.23a
40
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Prior to Organogenesis
Dpp
a.
During Organogenesis
Salivary
gland
Labium
b. 41
Organogenesis in Vertebrates
Organogenesis in vertebrates begins with the
formation of two structures unique to chordates
-Notochord
-Dorsal nerve cord
-Its development is called neurulation
42
Development of Neural Tube
The notochord forms from mesoderm
-Region of dorsal ectodermal cells situated
above notochord thickens to form the neural
plate
-Cells of the neural plate fold together to
form a long hollow cylinder, the neural
tube
-Will become brain and spinal cord
43
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Neural plate
Amniotic
cavity
Ectoderm
Mesoderm Notochord
Endoderm
Yolk sac
a.
Neural groove
Neural fold
Ectoderm
Mesoderm Notochord
Endoderm
b.
Neural tube
Neural crest
Ectoderm
Mesoderm
Endoderm Somite
44
c.
Generation of Somites
Mesoderm sheets on either side of notochord
separate into rounded regions called
somitomeres
-These separate into segmented blocks called
somites
-Form in an anterior-posterior wave with
a regular periodicity
-Ultimately give rise to skeleton,
muscles and connective tissues
45
Generation of Somites
Mesoderm in the head region remains connected
as somitomeres
-Form muscles of the face, jaws and throat
Some body organs develop within a strip of
mesoderm lateral to each row of somites
-Remainder of mesoderm moves out to
surround the endoderm completely
-Mesoderm separates into two layers
-Coelom forms in between 46
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Chorda-
Notochord
mesoderm
Kidney
Intermediate
mesoderm
Gonads
Circulatory
system
Extra-
embryonic
Head
Paraxial
mesoderm
Somite
48
Neural Crest Cells
Neural crest cells migrate in three pathways
-Cranial neural crest cells are anterior cells that
migrate into the head and neck
-Trunk neural crest cells are posterior cells that
migrate in two pathways
-Ventral pathway cells differentiate into
sensory neurons and Schwann cells
-Lateral pathway cells differentiate into
melanocytes of the skin
49
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Epidermis Posterior
Neural tube Lateral Pathway
Cells take a
Neural dorsolateral
crest cells route between
the epidermis
and somites
Ventral Pathway
Cells travel
ventrally
through the
anterior half
Posterior of each somite
somite
Anterior somite
Anterior Aorta Notochord
a.
Ventral Pathway Cell Fates Lateral Pathway Cell Fates
Melanocytes
Dorsal root
ganglia
Ventral root
Schwann
cells
Sympathetic
ganglia
Adrenal
medulla
b. 50
Neural Crest Cells
A mutation in a gene that promotes survival of
neural crest cells produces white spotting on
ventral surfaces of human babies & mice
51
Neural Crest Cells
Many of the unique vertebrate adaptations that
contribute to their varied ecological roles
involve neural crest derivatives
-For example gill chambers provided a greatly
improved means of gas exchange
-Allowed transition from filter feeding to
active predation (higher metabolic rate)
-Other changes = Better prey detection, and
rapid response to sensory information
52
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Chordates Vertebrates
Zygote
Brain,
Pharynx spinal cord,
Blastula spinal nerves
Lining of
respiratory
tract Endoderm Dorsal Neural
Gastrula Ectoderm
nerve cord crest
Lining of
digestive Epidermis, skin, hair, Gill arches,
tract Major epithelium, inner sensory ganglia,
glands ear, lens of eye Schwann cells,
adrenal medulla
Pancreas Liver
Mesoderm Notochord
53
Vertebrate Axis Formation
Hans Spemann & Hilde Mangold transplanted cells
of the dorsal lip of one embryo into the future
belly region of another
-Some of the embryos developed two
notochords: a normal dorsal one, and a second
one along the belly
-Moreover, a complete set of dorsal axial
structures formed at the ventral
transplantation site in most embryos
54
Vertebrate Axis Formation
Donor embryo Recipient embryo Primary Primary notochord, somites,
neural fold and neural development
Dorsal lip
Secondary
notochord, somites,
Secondary and neural
neural fold development
Primary embryo
Secondary embryo
55
Organizers
An organizer is a cluster of cells that release
diffusible signal molecules, which convey
positional information to other cells
-The closer a cell is to an organizer, the higher
the concentration of the signal molecule
(morphogen) it experiences
-Different morphogen concentrations
stimulate development of different organs
56
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Organ A
Organ B
of morphogen
Concentration
Organ C
Organizer cells
secreting morphogen
Embryo
Decreasing
morphogen
concentration
gradient
57
Organizers
Creation of the Spemann organizer
-In frogs, as in fruit flies, the process starts
during oogenesis in the mother
-Maternally-encoded dorsal determinants are
localized at the vegetal pole of the unfertilized
egg
-At fertilization, rearrangements in the
cytoplasm cause this determinant to shift
to the future dorsal side of the egg
58
Animal pole
Pigmented
cortical cytoplasm
Diffuse black
Microtubule
pigment
array
a.
Point of
sperm entry
Gray crescent
Shifted dorsal
determinants
b.
Organizer
Dorsal mesoderm-
inducing signal
Mesoderm-
inducing signals Nieuwkoop center
(TGF-b family proteins) 59
c.
Organizers
The maternally-encoded dorsal determinants are
mRNAs for proteins that function in the
intracellular Wnt signaling pathway
-Wnt genes encode a large family of cell-
signaling proteins
-Affect the development of a number of
structures in both vertebrates and
invertebrates
60
Organizers
Function of the Spemann organizer
-Dorsal lip cells do not directly activate dorsal
development
-Instead, dorsal mesoderm development
is a result of the inhibition of ventral
development
61
Organizers
The bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4) is
expressed in all marginal zone cells (the
prospective mesoderm) of a frog embryo
-BMP4 is a morphogen that at high levels
specifies ventral mesoderm cell fates
The Spemann organizer functions by secreting
BMP4 antagonists
-Bind to BMP4 and prevents its binding to its
receptor
62
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Ventral
Dorsal
Organizer molecules:
Chordin, Noggin, and others
63
Vegetal pole
Organizers
Evidence indicates that organizers are present in
all vertebrates
-In chicks, a group of cells anterior to the
primitive streak called Hensen’s node functions
like the Spemann organizer
-Secrete molecules that inhibit ventral
development
-Same as those in frog embryos
64
Induction
Primary induction occurs between the three
primary germ layers
-Example: Differentiation of the central nervous
system during neurulation
Secondary induction occurs between tissues that
have already been specified to develop along a
particular pathway
-Example: Development of the lens of the
vertebrate eye
65
Induction
Wall of forebrain
Ectoderm Optic cup
66
Human Development
Human development from fertilization to birth
takes an average of 266 days, or about 9
months
-This time is commonly divided into three
periods called trimesters
67
First Trimester
First month
-The zygote undergoes its first cleavage about
30 hr after fertilization
-By the time the embryo reaches the
uterus, 6-7 days after fertilization, it has
differentiated into a blastocyst
-Trophoblast cells digest their way
into the endometrium in the
process known as implantation
68
First Trimester
First month
-During the second week, the developing
chorion and mother’s endometrium engage to
form the placenta
-Mom and baby’s blood come into close
proximity, but do not mix
-Gases are exchanged, however
69
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Chorion
Amnion
Yolk sac
Umbilical
cord
Chorionic
frondosum
(fetal)
Decidua Placenta
basalis
(maternal)
Umbilical artery
Umbilical vein
Uterine wall
70
a.
First Trimester
First month
-One hormone released by the placenta is
human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
-Maintains mother’s corpus luteum
-Gastrulation occurs in the second week
-Neurulation occurs in the third week
-Organogenesis begins in the fourth week
-Embryo is 5 mm in length
71
First Trimester
Second month
-Miniature limbs assume adult shape
-Major organs within abdominal cavity become
evident
-Embryo grows to about 25 mm in length
-Weighs about 1 gm, and looks distinctly
human
72
First Trimester
Third month
-The ninth week marks the transition from
embryo to fetus
-Nervous system develops
-Limbs start to move
-Secretion of hCG by the placenta declines, and
so corpus luteum degenerates
-Placenta takes over hormone secretion
73
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hCG Estrogen
Progesterone
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Months of Pregnancy
74
Second Trimester
The basic body plan develops further
-Bones actively enlarge in fourth month
-Rapid fetal heartbeat can be heard by a
stethoscope
75
Third Trimester
A period of growth and organ maturation
77
Birth
Strong contractions, aided by the mother’s
voluntary pushing, expel the fetus
-Now called a newborn baby, or neonate
78
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Intestine
Placenta
Umbilical
cord
Wall of
uterus
Cervix
Vagina
79
Nursing
Milk production (lactation) occurs in alveoli of
mammary glands when stimulated by the
anterior pituitary hormone prolactin
-Milk is secreted into alveolar ducts
During pregnancy, progesterone stimulates
development of mammary alveoli
-And estrogen stimulates development of
alveolar ducts
80
Postnatal Development
Growth of the infant continues rapidly after birth
-Babies typically double their birth weight
within 2 months
81
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82