Unit 24 Cause & effect

1. Ways to express cause and effect

2. Have + noun/pronoun + past participle

Grammar Practice
Part A Part B Part C Part D
Language Practice
Part E Part F Part G
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Unit 24 Cause & effect
24.1 Ways to express cause and effect
Being able to explain cause and effect, i.e. why something
happened/is happening and what happened/is happening,
is an important skill. We can indicate the relationship
between cause and effect by using:

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Structures Examples Remarks

 nouns such The flood was the

as result, result of heavy rain.
cause and
Heavy rain was the * the reason + pronoun + verb
reason
reason for/the cause structure is usually followed by
of the flood.* the verb to be.
The reason she sang so
well was because of her
childhood training.

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Structures Examples Remarks

 prepositions Owing to illness, she

and had to take a day off
prepositional yesterday.
phrases
Her absence was due * We can use due to after the verb
to illness.* to be or as an adjective.

The delay was due to the

strike.

The delay due to the strike

has caused financial losses.

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Structures Examples Remarks

We cancelled the because of is a two-word

picnic because of/on preposition being used as a
account of the bad conjunction. We use it in front of a
weather. noun or a pronoun.

She gave the We use words expressing feelings

homeless man money such as kindness, pity, concern,
out of pity. curiosity, jealousy, etc. with out of
to mean because of or based upon.
He made the mistake
through carelessness.
(= because of)

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Structures Examples Remarks

 too … to and This book is too ! Caution!

(not) … difficult for me to
Avoid adding unnecessary words:
enough read.
to/(not)  The shirt is too large for me
He has too much
enough … to to wear it.
pride to accept any
help.  The shirt is too large for me
to wear.
This book is not easy
enough for me to  The bag is not big enough
read. to put all the groceries in it.
He did not have  The bag is not big enough
enough money to buy to put all the groceries in.
the car.

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Structures Examples Remarks

 connectives He spent his time We can also put as a result,

studying hard and therefore and so before a clause:
reviewing his notes
He was early so we
carefully.
caught the early ferry.
Consequently,
He was delayed,
As a result, therefore we extended
our lunch break.
As a he
consequence, passed We can also use thus in this way:
Therefore, She offered to help, thus
Thus, making it possible for us
to finish the job quickly.
his examinations.

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Structures Examples Remarks

 conjunctions He was tired (and) so

he went to bed early
last night.
He went to bed early Because may come before or after
last night because he the main clause.
was tired.

he was tired, As and since are often placed at the

As he went to beginning of a structure. However,
Since bed early last they can be used in other positions
night. too.

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Structures Examples Remarks

He went to bed early For, when meaning because, cannot

last night, for he was be put at the beginning of a sentence.
tired. It cannot be used to answer the
question Why? or used with not,
The reason (why) he but or any other conjunctions.
went to bed so early
was that he was tired. He criticised your work not
because he disliked it, but
because he didn’t want to see you
make the same mistakes in the
future.
Why did he go to bed early last
night?
Because he was tired.
! Caution!
 For he was tired.
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Structures Examples Remarks

He was so tired that We can use the structure so +

he went to bed early. adjective/adverb + that.
He spoke so fast that we
could not understand him.

It was such an easy We can use the structure such +

question that everyone adjective + noun + that.
could answer it. The question was so easy
that everyone could answer it.

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Structures Examples Remarks

It was such an easy We use so, not such, with

question that everyone many and much.
could answer it.
There were so many people
at the beach that we didn’t
enjoy ourselves as much as
we’d expected.
There was so much interest in
the drama course that we
decided to run it again next
month.

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Unit 24 Cause & effect
24.2 Have + noun/pronoun + past participle
We can use the structure have + noun/pronoun + past
participle to indicate the action of causing something to be
done by someone else.
I’ll have my hair cut tomorrow.
(= someone will cut my hair)
We had our flat redecorated last month.
(= someone redecorated our flat/we arranged for
someone to do the job for us)
Compare: We redecorated our flat last month.
(= we redecorated our own flat – not
someone else)
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In this structure we can informally use get instead of

have.
I’m going to get my coat cleaned.
We can also use this structure to talk about something
which we did not do.
I had my wallet stolen yesterday.
(= someone stole my wallet)

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We often use this structure when something unpleasant or

unexpected happens to someone.
Take care not to confuse this structure with have +
someone + bare infinitive.
I’ll have my assistant contact you.
(= I’ll ask my assistant to contact you)

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Unit 24 Cause & effect
Grammar Practice
Complete the sentences by choosing the correct word or
expression from the brackets. The first one has been done for
you as an example.

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Unit 24 Cause & effect

1 As a result of (As a result of/As a result) the

typhoon, all flights were cancelled.

2 Success can be achieved through (through/

thorough) hard work.

3 What is the reason (cause/reason) for his

popularity?

4 Can you tell us the reason (reason/cause) why

Hong Kong is such a popular tourist destination?

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5 They were having so (so/such) much fun

rehearsing that they finished in next to no time.

6 She read the letter out of (out of/because)

curiosity.

7 The new healthy lunch boxes resulted in

(in/from) more students buying school lunches.

8 There will be more recycling bins in schools due to

(because/due to) students enthusiastically recycling rubbish at
break times.
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9 The charity received a lot of money because of _

(because of/account) students’ flag selling efforts.

10 My mother had a cold yesterday so

(so/for) she stayed at home and rested.

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Join the sentences in Column A to those in Column B by

using so, such and/or that. The first one has been done for
you as an example.

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Column A

1 I was excited.
2 The road was slippery.
3 The water was very warm.
4 There were many trees.
5 It was lovely weather.
6 The pizza was enormous.
7 The flight was six hours.

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Column B

1 I couldn’t sleep.
2 It made driving dangerous.
3 We decided to swim.
4 The trail was very shady.
5 We went to the beach.
6 Everyone could have a slice.
7 I watched a film and then slept.

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1 I was so excited that I couldn’t sleep./I was

excited so I couldn’t sleep.

2 The road was so slippery that it made driving

dangerous./The road was slippery so it made
driving dangerous.

3 The water was very warm so we decided to swim.

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4 There were so many trees that the trail was very

shady./There were many trees so the trail was
very shady.

5 It was such lovely weather that we went to the

beach./It was lovely weather so we went to the
beach.

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6 The pizza was enormous so everyone could

have a slice./The pizza was so enormous that
everyone could have a slice.

7 The flight was six hours so I watched a film and

then slept.

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Unit 24 Cause & effect

Complete the dialogues by using too . . . to or (not) enough

to and the given words. The first two have been done for you
as examples.

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1 busy/talk about

Sam Shall we discuss the matter now?

Neil I’m afraid I ’m/am too busy to talk

about
it now. How about this afternoon?

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2 old/take his driving test

Paul Has your brother got a driving licence?

Sally No, he isn’t/is not old enough to

take his driving test .

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3 time/finish

Derek Do we have enough time to finish ?

Nancy Oh yes; we’ve got half an hour left.

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4 work/do

Kevin Why didn’t you come to the library this afternoon?

Brian I had too much work to do

on my project.

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5 good/do

Mr Wong Can we ask Christine to act as our interpreter in

Paris?

Mr Lau I don’t think her French is good

enough to do
that.

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6 expensive/go

Clare Are you going overseas for your holiday?

Lily No, it’s too expensive to go

abroad right now.

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7 late/do

Kate Let’s review our notes again quickly.

Sally It’s too late to do

that now. Let’s do it tomorrow instead.

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8 experience/do

Mr Kwok Shall we ask Robert to do it?

Miss Tam Organising an inter-school debate is not an easy

job. I don’t think Robert
is experienced enough to do
it yet.

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Unit 24 Cause & effect

Combine the sentences using the words in brackets. The first

one has been done for you as an example.

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Unit 24 Cause & effect

1 It was sunny. We decided to play tennis. (so)

It was sunny so we decided to play tennis.

2 He couldn’t concentrate. It was too noisy. (because of)

He couldn’t concentrate because of the noise.

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3 She was curious. She asked him. (out of)

She asked him out of curiosity.

4 It rained heavily. Public transport in many parts of the

Territory was disrupted. (owing to)

Owing to (the) heavy rain ,

public transport in many parts of the Territory was disrupted.

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5 He practised every day. He played the piano well. (as a result)

He practised every day and as a result he played the

piano well.

6 She declined the invitation. She didn’t like the restaurant. (as)

She declined the invitation as she didn’t like the

restaurant.

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7 She passed the interview. She will start her university studies
in September. (consequently)

She passed the interview and consequently will/will

consequently start her university studies in
September.

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8 His uncle bought him a new laptop. He emailed his uncle to say
thank you. (therefore)

His uncle bought him a new laptop. Therefore, he

emailed him/his uncle to say thank you.

9 Mr Chan became Head of History. He is deeply interested in

the subject. (on account of)

Mr Chan became Head of History on account of his

deep interest in the subject.

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Unit 24 Cause & effect
Language Practice
Complete the passage using words or phrases below. You
don’t need to use all of the words, and you may use some of
them more than once. The first one has been done for you as
an example.

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Unit 24 Cause & effect

We spend about a third of our lives in bed, (1) so it

makes sense to invest in a quality mattress. (2) Because of
the great variety of mattresses on the market, it can be
difficult to decide which one to choose. What’s more, what
is good for one person may not be ideal for another. A hard
mattress, for example, may (3) cause pain to someone
suffering from backache, while another may find it quite
comfortable.

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We asked Ms Helen Smith, marketing manager of a bed

manufacturing company, for her advice on selecting a
mattress. She pointed out that it was a myth that a firmer
mattress was better. ‘If the mattress is (4) too firm

(5) to sleep on, it won’t support the body evenly. Only

the body’s heaviest parts – the shoulders and hips – will be
Consequently/Therefore/
supported. (6) Thus/So ,a
mattress that is too firm can create pressure points, (7)
thus/therefore/
consequently restricting proper circulation.

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This is what (8) causes some people to toss and turn

(9) too much at night.’

Ms Smith went on to warn that a soft mattress is similarly

unhealthy (10) as/because it can damage the
spine. ‘This is (11) because a mattress that is too soft
fails to keep your spine correctly aligned,’ she explained.
‘This can (12) lead to tension, and muscles then try
to compensate for this.’

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‘My advice (13) therefore/thus is to choose a

mattress that makes you feel refreshed after a night’s sleep,

and don’t choose a mattress (14) because of its

brand name only,’ she concluded.

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Unit 24 Cause & effect

Fill in each blank in the dialogue with NO MORE THAN

FOUR words. The first one has been done for you as an
example.

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Alan According to the Observatory, twenty

people have been hit by lightning
since 1990. (1) most of the victims (1) As/Since
were outdoor workers, I suspect many
of them (2) enough care (3) protect
(2) had not taken
themselves during adverse weather.
(3) to
Sally What a tragedy. Were they all killed?

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Alan No. Six lost their lives, but the rest

survived. Apart from inadequate
precautions, I think the shortcomings
of weather forecasts may also be the (4) (4) cause
of those tragic accidents.

Sally Hmm … I would have thought because of/owing

to/due to/as a
tracking lightning would be easy (5) (5) result of/with
modern technology, (6) many so/so that/and
(6) as a result
lightning-related accidents could be

avoided. Or did the tragedies happen P.246

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because of/owing
(7) freak weather conditions, and (8) (7) to/due to
they were unavoidable? consequently/
(8) as a result

Alan I’m not sure, but monitoring stations

have already been established in Hong
Kong, Macau and Sanshui in
Guangdong Province to measure
electrical waves from lightning. They thus/
therefore/
should (9) be able to predict the (9) then
location of a strike quite accurately.

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Sally How can they use this information?

Because/
Alan (10) the information collected shows (10) Since
trends in lightning movements,
scientists can then plot lightning
strikes on a map that can be frequently
updated online.
thus/therefore/
Sally I see. These updates could (11) act as (11) then
reminders to alert the public of
dangerous weather. However,
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Unit 24 Cause & effect
this leaves me wondering (12) some (12) why
workers are still hit by lightning with
such an advanced warning system in
due to/owing
operation. Is it (13) the inaccuracy of (13) to/because of
the system?

Alan Inaccuracy of the system? That’s

possible, (14) not likely. I think (14) but/though
accidents will happen (15) every despite/in
(15) spite of
precaution. Tragedy can strike anyone

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(16) no apparent reason. (16) for

Sally Well, I guess you’re right.

(Note: accept all reasonable answers)

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Complete the passage by choosing the correct answers. The

first one has been done for you as an example.

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Air pollution is becoming a serious problem (1) ( because

/ caused by / since / as a result ) rapid urbanisation. (2)
( It’s believed / Claimed / As disclosed / According to )
the World Health Organization, as many as seven million
people die prematurely every year (3) ( because / due to /
as a result / since ) air pollution-related diseases, (4)
( since / because / such as / for ) asthma, lung cancer and
other respiratory illnesses. Poor visibility is another

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(5) ( result of / cause of / reason for / reason why )

deteriorating air quality. ‘It’s becoming quite rare

(6)( to / for / from / through ) us (7) ( can / such / to / not )

see a clear blue sky nowadays,’ says Xuan-Yi, a resident

of Beijing, where there is often heavy smog. (8) ( Because
/ Despite / Owing to / As ) pollution from vehicle
emissions and industrial coal burning, the air quality of
Beijing has worsened over the years.

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What about the air quality in Hong Kong? (9) ( As /

Through / Because / Due to ) the fact that we are a
densely populated city with heavy car use, Hong Kong’s
air quality is (10) ( as / so / so that / such ) poor that it has
attracted concern from locals and tourists alike.

(11) ( Accordingly / According to / In addition / In spite

of ), various measures have been taken by the government

to tackle the air pollution problem. The Air Quality

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Monitoring Network, for instance, was established in 2005 by

the government (12) ( because / on account of / since / as a
result ) increasing concern over deteriorating air quality.
(13) ( In spite of / Apart from that / Although / Whereas ),

emissions of diesel engines are also (14) ( a result of / a major

cause of / the reason why / because of ) air pollution in Hong
Kong, (15) ( such / so / as / since ) measures to cut emissions,
such as incentive programmes to replace or retrofit old diesel
vehicles, have been introduced.
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Anthony Hedley of Hong Kong University’s School of

Public Health said he was worried that some people
affected by pollution may not live to see retirement. He
added that younger generations could also bear the
physical burden of impaired development, and (16)
( consequently / on account of / since / through ) could
face chronic disease, reduced quality of life and reduced
productivity. ‘Pollution is harming future health

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(17) ( without consideration / as well as / taken into

account / like doing to ) present health,’ heconcluded.

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