PLT 202– Instrumentation and Measurement

By: Mdm Chanuri A/P Charin

Chapter 3:
Concept and Principles of
Transducers and Sensors
 Lesson Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, students should be
able to:

• define basic concept of transducers and

sensors
• apply in-depth knowledge in transducer's and
sensor’s application
 Objectives:
1. To get familiarize with
several types of transducers
and selection criteria.
2. Able to apply basic
principles of operation and
application of common
transducer.
 Introduction
Content:
• 1. Definition of Transducer
• 2. Types of Transducers
• 3. Application of Transducers
• 4. Advantage of Electrical
• 5. Classification Of Transducers
• 6. Selecting A Transducers
• 7. Parameter
• 8. Transducers – (several example)
• (i) Potentiometer, (ii) Capacitive, (iii) Thermocouple, (iv) Thermistors,
(v) Strain Gauge,
(vi) LVDT – Linear Variable Differential Transformer : Inductive Position
Sensor,
(vii) RTD – Resistive Temperature Detectors)
 What is a transducer ?

A transducer is a device which transforms a

non-electrical physical quantity (i.e.
temperature, sound or light) into an electrical
signal (i.e. voltage, current, capacity…)
…more
• Geiger counter: detects radiation levels by
using a transducer called a Geiger-Muller tube
• Microphone and Speaker. Microphones
convert sound pressure waves into electrical
current, while speaker convert electrical
current into sound pressure waves.
• And many many others
 Mechanical motion >
 Sound > Electric  Electrical > Sound
Electrical Signal
 Type of Transducers

Electrical Transducers
– Converts the input measurand into an electrical
voltage/current

Non electrical
physical quantity

Tranducer Electrical
signal
Mechanical Transducers
– Converts the input measurand into a mechanical
energy
Advantages of Electrical Transducers

 Electrical amplification and attenuation can

be easily done
 Mass-inertia effects are minimized
 Effect of friction are minimized
 Advantages cont…

 The output can be indicated and recorded

remotely at a distance from the sensing medium

 The output can be modified to meet the

requirements of indicating or controlling units

 The signal can be conditioned or mixed to obtain

any combination with outputs of similar
transducers or control signal
 Classification of Transducers

 Active Transducers - Do not requires external power

produce an analog voltage
measurand electrical output
Active Transducer
 Passive Transducers -Require external power source
to operate
measurand electrical output
Passive Transducer

external power
 Selecting a Transducers

Operating Range Maintain range requirements and good

resolution
Sensitivity Sensitivity enough to allow sufficient
output
Environment Compatibility Ability to make it applicable and
interactions
Accuracy Subject to repeatability and calibration
error
Physical Condition Depend on its usage
Electrical Length and type of cable is required
 Parameter for Transducers

Linearity Relationship between physical

parameter and resulting electrical
signal must be linear
Sensitivity Defined as the electrical output per
unit change in physical parameter
Dynamic Range Operating range should be wide to
permit it use under wide range of
measurement condition
Repeatability Input or output relationship for a
transducer should be predictable over a
long period of time
Physical Size Minimum weight and volume
 Transducers
o Resistive Transducer
• Potentiometer
o Resistive Position Transducer
o Displacement Transducer
• Capacitive Transducer
• Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
o Temperature Transducers
• Thermocouple
• Thermistor
• Resistance-Temperature Detectors ( RTD)
o Strain Gauge
o Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
 (i) Potentiometer
• Electromechanical device containing a
resistance element that is contacted by a
movable slider
• The motion of the movable slider may be
translatory or rotational.
 Transducers
o Resistive Transducer
• Potentiometer
o Resistive Position Transducer
o Displacement Transducer
• Capacitive Transducer
• Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
o Temperature Transducers
• Thermocouple
• Thermistor
• Resistance-Temperature Detectors ( RTD)
o Strain Gauge
o Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
Resistive Position Transducer
Resistive Position Transducer
…….more
• The output voltage depends on the wiper
position and therefore is a function of the
shaft position.
• The output voltage Eout is a fraction of E,
depending on the position of the wiper.
• The element is considered perfectly linear if
the resistance of the transducer is distributed
uniformly along the length of travel of wiper.
• Example: A displacement transducer with a
shaft stroke of 30 cm is applied to the circuit.
The total resistance of the potentiometer is 5k
Ω . The applied voltage VS is 5V. Calculate the
output voltage when the wiper is 9cm from B.
• Example: A potentiometer transducer with a shaft stroke of
8cm is used in circuit below. The applied voltage is 10V. The
total resistance of potentiometer R1 and R2 is 6kΩ. The total
resistance of the potentiometer R3 and R4 is 4kΩ. The initial
position to be used as a reference point is set such that R1 is
4.5 cm and R3 is 3.5cm of the shaft stroke length (from point
A).

• i. Calculate the values of R1, R3 and VE at initial position

• ii. Calculate the displacements of potentiometer R3 and R4 in
the case that VE =0. Then identify the direction of the
displacement
• Exercise: A displacement transducer with a shaft
of 2.0mm is used in the circuit as shown in figure
below. The total resistance of the potentiometer
R1 and R2 is 5000Ω and the applied voltage is
5.0V. The total resistance of the potentiometer R3
and R4 is also 5000Ω.The initial position to be
used as reference point is set such that R1 = R2
(i.e. when the shaft is at mid-stroke). Initially,
potentiometer R3 and R4 is adjusted so that the
bridge is balanced (i.e. VE = 0). Assuming the shaft
of the potentiometer R3 and R4 will be moved
0.5mm towards A, what is the value of VE?
• Potentiometer senses displacement by
means of sensing shaft, which is mechanically
connected to the point or objects whose
displacement, is to be measured.
Example: Petrol-tank level indicator. In this
case, potentiometer is used to indicate/sense
the petrol level in a tank as shown in Figure
below. The output signal (voltage) is
proportional to the petrol level.
Advantages & Disadvantages of
Potentiometer
 Transducers
o Resistive Transducer
• Potentiometer
o Resistive Position Transducer
o Displacement Transducer
• Capacitive Transducer
• Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
o Temperature Transducers
• Thermocouple
• Thermistor
• Resistance-Temperature Detectors ( RTD)
o Strain Gauge
 Capacitive transducer
The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is
given by
ε = dielectric constant
εo = 8.854 x 1o-12, in farad per meter
A = the area of the plate, in square meter
d = the plate spacing in meters

Since C is inversely proportional to d, any

change in d will cause a change in C.
• the capacitive transducer works on the
principle of changing of capacitance which may
caused by:
• Advantages :
1. Required extremely small forces to operate them and hence are very
useful for use in small systems.
2. Extremely sensitive.
3. A good frequency response as high as 50kHz and useful for dynamic
studies.
4. High input impedance therefore the loading effects are minimum.
5. The force requirements is very small and therefore require small
power to operates them
• Disadvantages:
1. The metallic parts of the transducer must be insulated from each
other in order to reduce the effects of stray capacitance, the frames
must be earthen.
2. The output impedance of the capacitive transducers tends to be high
on account of their small capacitance value this leads to loading
effects.
• Uses of Capacitive Transducer
1. It can be used for measurement of both linear and
angular displacements.
2. It can be used for measurement of force and
pressure. The force and pressure to be measured
are first converted to displacement which caused a
change in capacitance.
3. It can be used for measurement of humidity in
gases since the dielectric constant of gases changes
with change in humidity thereby producing a
change in capacitance.
4. It is commonly used in conjunction with
mechanical modifiers for measurement of volume,
density, liquid level, weight and etc.
Capacitive sensor is used to detect the presence of boxes
on the conveyor belt
• Example: A capacitive transducer is used for the
measurement of linear displacement, X, as shown
in below. The parallel plate has a dimension of
5.0cm X 5.0cm and is separated by a distance of
1.0cm. The space between the plates is filled with
a dielectric material of 1.0cm thick, which has a
dielectric constant of 4.0. If the dielectric constant
for air is 1.0cm, determine the value of the
capacitance when x is equal to:
(i) 0.0cm
(ii) 2.0cm
• Exercise:Figure below shows a capacitive transducer used for
measurement of linear displacement, x. the parallel plates
have a dimension of (4.0 cm x 4.0cm) and separated by a
distance of 10 mm. the space between plates is filled with a
dielectric material with constant of 3.0.If the dielectric
constant for air is 1.0, determine the value of the capacitance
when x is equal to:

• i) 0.0 cm
• ii) 2.0 cm
• iii) 4.0 cm
iv) What is the effect of capacitance when the
displacement of dielectric is increased?
Given εo = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m.
 Transducers
o Resistive Transducer
• Potentiometer
o Resistive Position Transducer
o Displacement Transducer
• Capacitive Transducer
• Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
o Temperature Transducers
• Thermocouple
• Thermistor
• Resistance-Temperature Detectors ( RTD)
o Strain Gauge
 Passive type IT (LVDT)
• Passive inductive transducers require an
external source of power.
• The Differential transformer is a passive
inductive transformer, well known as Linear
Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT).
• It consists basically of a primary winding and
two secondary windings, wound over a hollow
tube and positioned so that the primary is
between two of its secondaries.
Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
 Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
• An iron core slides within the tube and therefore
affects the magnetic coupling between the primary
and two secondaries.
• When the core is in the centre , the voltage induced
in the two secondaries is equal.
• When the core is moved in one direction of
centre, the voltage induced in one winding is increased
and that in the other is decreased. Movement in the
opposite direction reverses this effects.
 Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
• In next figure, the winding
is connected ‘series opposing’
-that is the polarities of V1
and V2 oppose each other
• Consequently, when the core
is in the center so that V1=V2,
there is no voltage output,
Vo = 0V.
……. more
• When the core is moved in one direction from
the center, the voltage induced in one winding is
increased and that in the others is decreased.
• Movement in the opposite direction reverse
the effect.
 Advantages of LVDT
• It produces a high output voltages for small
changes in core position.
• Low cost
• Solid and robust - capable of working in a wide
variety of environments.
• No permanent damage to the LVDT if
measurements exceed the designed range.
 Example
• An AC LVDT has the following data. Input = 6.3V, output=5.2V range +/- 0.5 in.
Determine:
a) Calculate the output voltage vs core position for a core movement going from
+0.45 in to -0.30in.
b)The output voltage when the core is -0.25in from the centre.
Solution

a)0.5 in core displacement produces 5.2V,therefore a 0.45 in core movement

produces(0.45x5.2)/0.5 = 4.68V
At -0.30 in core movement produces
(-0.30x-0.52)/(-0.5) = -3.12V
b) -0.25 in core movement produces
(-0.25x-5.2)/(-0.5) = -2.6V