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Chapter 3-Wireless Network Principles
Chapter 3-Wireless Network Principles
Chapter Three
Wireless Network Principles
1
Outline
• Wireless Basics
• Frequency allocation & regulation
• Antennas
• Signal propagation
• Multiplexing
• Modulation
• Media access control
• Classifications of wireless networks
Wireless Transmission
Antenna
Antenna
Transmitter Receiver
Regulating Bodies
• ITU (International Telecom Union)
– Responsible for assigning internationally used frequencies
• Local broadcast and telecommunication
agencies are also responsible
Question
• Which type of frequency do you think is
widely used(or congested) in wireless
communication ?
• Lower frequencies or higher?
• Why?
Relationship between Wireless
Frequency and Distance Covered
• A very important relationship exists between
frequency and distance covered. The relationship
is
d = k/f
• Where d = distance covered, f = frequency used,
and k = constant that depends on environmental
factors.
• Thus, the distance covered is inversely
proportional to the frequency being used.
• This implies that the higher the frequency, the
shorter is the distance covered
Why lower frequencies?
Oscilator Transmiter
Suppose you want to generate a signal that is sent at 900 MHz and
the original source generates a signal at 300 MHZ.
•Amplifier - strengthens the initial signal
•Oscillator - creates a carrier wave of 600 MHz
•Mixer - combines original signal with oscillator and produces 900 MHz
•Filter - selects correct frequency (Checks the standards)
•Amplifier - Strengthens the signal before sending it
Receivers perform similar operations but in reverse direction
Antennas
• An antenna is an electrical conductor or system of
conductors to send/receive RF signals
– Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy into
space
– Reception - collects electromagnetic energy from space
• In two-way communication, the same antenna
can be used for transmission and reception
Directional
Omnidirectional Antenna (higher
Antenna (lower frequency) frequency)
Antenna can be described by:
• Radiation pattern
– Graphical representation of radiation properties of an
antenna
– shown as two-dimensional cross section.
• Reception pattern
• Receiving antenna’s equivalent to radiation pattern
• Antenna gain
– is a measure of directionality of antennas
– Higher gain …means heavily directional
Radiation Patterns
Antenna Types
• Isotropic antenna (idealized)
– Radiates power equally in all directions
• Dipole antennas(real world )
– Omni-directional
• Parabolic Reflective Antenna (highly focused, directional)
Antennas: isotropic radiator
• Radiation and reception of electromagnetic waves,
coupling of wires to space for radio transmission
• Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three
dimensional) - only a theoretical reference antenna
• Real antennas always have directive effects (vertically
and/or horizontally)
• Radiation pattern: measurementz of radiation around an
antenna y z
y x ideal
x isotropic
radiator
Antennas: simple dipoles
• Real antennas are not isotropic radiators
y y z
simple
x z x dipole
side view (xy-plane) side view (yz-plane) top view (xz-plane)
z
z
x
sectorized
x antenna
– no communication distance
detection
possible
• Interference range interference
Transmission Receiving
Antenna Antenna
Earth
a) Ground Wave Propagation
signal at sender
signal at receiver
• Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time
– interference with “neighbor” symbols, Inter Symbol
Interference (ISI)
• The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted
– distorted signal depending on the phases of the different
parts
LOS Wireless Transmission Impairments
• Attenuation
• Noise
• Atmospheric absorption
• Multipath
Attenuation
• Strength of signal falls off with distance over
transmission medium
• Attenuation factors for unguided media:
– Received signal must have sufficient strength so that
circuitry in the receiver can interpret the signal
– Signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher than noise to
be received without error
– Attenuation is greater at higher frequencies, causing
distortion
• Approach: amplifiers that strengthen higher
frequencies
Categories of Noise
• Thermal Noise
• Crosstalk
• Impulse Noise
Multiplexing
• Multiplexing in 3 dimensions k 1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
– time (t) c
– frequency (f) t c
t
– code (c)
s1
f
s2
f
• Goal: multiple use c
of a shared medium t
s3
• Important: guard spaces needed! f
• Disadvantages
– waste of bandwidth
if the traffic is
distributed
unevenly
– inflexible
t
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller
www.jochenschiller.de MC -
2011
Time multiplex
• A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of
time
• Advantages
– only one carrier in the k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
medium at any time
– throughput high even
for many users c
f
• Disadvantages
– precise
synchronization
necessary
t
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller
www.jochenschiller.de MC -
2011
Time and frequency multiplex
• Combination of both methods
• A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain
amount of time
• Example: GSM
• Advantages k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
R
S
R= Reflection
S=Scattering
D= Diffraction
Problem of multiple propagation
• multi-path propagation effects occur as a
result of transmitted signals being reflected
off objects (buildings, bridges, signs, cars,
etc.) before they reach the receiver.
• Extreme variability in received signal
strength (fading) and arrival time, delays and
the Doppler effect.
• Due to these distortions, wireless systems
need to detect and recover from errors by
using different techniques.
Doppler Effect
• Christian Doppler (1803-1853),
• Doppler effect represents the shifts in the
frequency of electromagnetic radiation emitted
by a moving object.
• Consider, for example, a police car approaching
you. The pitch of the siren changes as the vehicle
approaches you and then goes away from you.
First the pitch becomes higher, then lower.
Doppler Effect
Error Control
• Mechanisms to detect and correct transmission errors
• Types of errors:
– Lost PDU : a PDU fails to arrive
– Damaged PDU : PDU arrives with errors
• Positive acknowledgement
– Destination returns acknowledgment of received, error-free
PDUs
• Error detection
– Receiver detects errors and discards PDUs
• Retransmission after timeout(Lost PDU )
– Source retransmits unacknowledged PDU
• Negative acknowledgement and retransmission(Damaged
– Destination returns negative acknowledgment to PDUs in error
Coping with Data Transmission Errors
• Error detection codes
• Detects the presence of an error
– Automatic repeat request (ARQ) protocols
• Block of data with error is discarded
• Transmitter retransmits that block of data
• Error correction codes, or forward correction
codes (FEC)
– Designed to detect and correct errors
Error Detection Process
• Transmitter
– For a given frame, an error-detecting code (check bits)
is calculated from data bits
– Check bits are appended to data bits
• Receiver
– Separates incoming frame into data bits and check bits
– Calculates check bits from received data bits
– Compares calculated check bits against received check
bits
– Detected error occurs if mismatch
Wireless Transmission Errors
• Error detection leads to retransmission
• Detection and retransmission is inadequate
for wireless applications
– High error rate in wireless , results in a large
number of retransmissions
– Error might occur in the retransmission
– Retransmissions will make it slower
• Best to correct errors by using
– Block Error Correction
– Turbo Codes
Communication in wireless systems
• Analog communication
– receive/generate analogy signal and use amplifiers
to handle attenuation.
– amplifier do not know the content ,they amplify
whatever is received, including the noise.
• Digital Communication
– received/generate digital signal and uses
repeaters ,over long distances to recover the
patterns of 1’s and 0’s
– Repeaters are used to filter the noise.
Why digital is better ???
• more strong and free of noise because it is easier
to detect 1’s and 0’s even in distorted messages.
• Repeaters reduce additive noise.
• especially suitable for computer networks because
data bits can be directly fed into a communication
medium without any modulation/demodulation.
• Digital communications are more secure because
digital data streams can be scrambled (encrypted)
by using sophisticated computer techniques.
• The encryption/decryption on analog data is not
sophisticated.
Signal encoding
• Data must be encoded into signals that carry
the data .
• Data can be digital or analog
• Signals can also be the digital or analog.
• Different technique are used based on the
format of data (analog or digital) and the
encoded signal (analog or digital).
Encodings….
• Analog data, analog signal: One of the oldest
techniques, used in early days of telephone
systems. Easy
• Digital data, analog signal: In use since the
dawn of computer communications in the
1960s, this technique is still used by modems to
transmit computer data over dial-up lines.
• Digital data, digital signal: Used commonly at
present to transmit computer data over digital
facilities.
• Analog data, digital signal: Used to transmit
voice and other analog data over digital circuits.
Signal encoding schemes
Analog Data to Analog Signal Encoding
• Amplitude Modulation (AM) the amplitude
of the data signal is modified by the carrier
signal.
• Frequency Modulation (FM) is used to
represent different data signals with different
frequencies.
• Phase Modulation (PM) is used to represent
different data signals with different phases.
Digital Data to Analog Signal Encoding:
Modems
• Amplitude-shift Keying (ASK), where the 0 and 1 bits
are represented by the height of the amplitude.
• This technique is quite simple but is susceptible to
sudden gain changes due to noise and attenuation.
• For this reason, it is not heavily used in wireless
systems.
Digital Data to Analog Signal Encoding
• Frequency-shift Keying (FSK), where the 0 and 1 bits
are represented by two different frequencies, say
1000 cycles per second and 2000 cycles per second,
respectively.
• FSK is less susceptible to errors than ASK and is used
for high-frequency (3 to 30 MHz) radio transmissions.
Digital Data to Analog Signal Encoding
• Phase-shift Keying (PSK), where a certain phase
(e.g., 180) is used to represent bit 0, and a change to
bit 1 is indicated whenever the phase of the signal
changes.
• PSK is also less error-prone.
• PSK uses bandwidth more efficiently. Thus many
wireless systems use PSK and its variants.
Question
Amplitude
Samples
This shows 12 samples, each sample represents the amplitude of the wave. These
samples as sent as digital data and then reconstructed into the original signal on the
receiving side.
Delta Modulation
• Analog input is approximated by staircase
function
– Moves up or down by one quantization level () at
each sampling interval
• The bit stream approximates derivative of
analog signal (rather than amplitude)
– 1 is generated if function goes up
– 0 otherwise
Delta Modulation
Analog Signal
Signal Staircase
Amplitude Function
Time
Signal Encoding Evaluation
• What determines how successful a receiver will be in
interpreting an incoming signal?
• The following are the key criteria:
– Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR): An increase in SNR decreases bit
error rate, thus a higher SNR is good for better reception.
– Data rate: An increase in data rate increases bit error rate,
thus higher data rates are not good for reception.
– Bandwidth: An increase in bandwidth allows an increase in
data rate, thus it also leads to higher data rates and lower
quality of reception.
Signal Encoding Evaluation…
• The main factors used to compare different encoding
schemes are:
• How well it performs in the presence of noise and
attenuation.
– For example, amplitude modulation is more susceptible to
noise than others.
• How much bandwidth it consumes.
– For example, frequency modulation consumes more
bandwidth than others.
• How much does it cost?
– The higher the signal rate and the complexity of the
encoding scheme, the greater the cost.
Signal encoding schemes
Spread Spectrum
• Was developed for military and intelligence (wwII)
• Idea is to spread the message over a range of signals
to make it jam resistant.
• Different data bits are transmitted over different
signals based on secret scheme.
– Receiver must know the scheme(code) to understand the
signal.
– This make it secured and loud
• But it consumes more bandwidth.
Types of spread spectrum
Energy
Data
4 7 5 1 6 8 3 2 Bits
Frequency
f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7 f8
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
(DSSS)
• Each bit in original signal is represented by multiple
bits in the transmitted signal
– bit pattern is called a chip (or chipping code)
• Spreading code spreads signal across a wider
frequency band
– Spread is in direct proportion to number of bits used
• Good to recover data with out retransmission.
• Wireless Ethernet LAN uses DSSS as well as FHSS.
• DSSS is used in Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA), a popular standard for cellular phones
Multiple Access Techniques
• MAC is important for enabling successful network operation in all
shared - medium networks
1. Contention based
2. Contention free
Contention-Based MAC Protocols
• All nodes share a common medium and contend for the
medium for transmission, collision may occur during the
contention.