Geometric Modeling

Geometric modelling refers to a set of

techniques concerned mainly with
developing efficient representations of
geometric aspects of a design. Therefore,
geometric modelling is a fundamental part
of all CAD tools.

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 Geometric modeling is the basic of many
applications such as:
• Mass property calculations.
• Mechanism analysis.
• Finite-element modelling.
• NC programming.

Requirements of geometric modelling include:

• Completeness of the part representation.
• The modelling method should be easy to use by designers.
• Rendering capabilities (which means how fast the entities can be
accessed and displayed by the computer).

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 Step from geometric to
program
• Geometry algebra  algorithm program
representation

-Symbolic
-Numerical
-approximation

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 Geometric Modeling Approaches

The basic geometric modelling approaches available

to designers on CAD/CAM systems are:
1. Wire-frame modeling.
2. Surface modeling.
3. Solid modeling.

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 ENTITY

Implicit Function or Relation

A function or relation in which the dependent variable is not isolated on one side of
the equation. For example, the equation x2 + xy – y2 = 1 represents an implicit relation.

Explicit Function
A function in which the dependent variable can be written explicitly in terms of
the independent variable.
For example, the following are explicit functions: y = x2 – 3, , and y = log2 x

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 Analytical Curves

1- Non-parametric representation analytical curves

Line Y  mX  c
Circle X Y 2 2
R 2

2 2
X Y
Ellipse
2
 2 1
a b
Parabola Y 2  4aX
• Although non-parametric representations of curve equations are used in some cases,
they are not in general suitable for CAD because:
• The equation is dependent on the choice of the coordinate system
• Implicit equations must be solved simultaneously to determine points on the curve,
inconvenient process.
• If the curve is to be displayed as a series of points or straight line segments, the
computations involved could be extensive.

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 Analytical Curves

2- Parametric representation of analytical curves

In parametric representation, each point on a curve is expressed as a function

of a parameter u. The parameter acts as a local coordinate for points on the
curve.

For 3D Curve

P(u)  [ x y y]  [ x(u)
T
y(u) z(u)] T

umin  u  umax
• The parametric curve is bounded by two parametric values Umin and Umax

• It is convenient to normalize the parametric variable u to have the limits 0 and 1.

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 Wire-frame Modeling
Wire-frame modelling uses points and curves
(i.e. lines, circles, arcs), and so forth to
define objects.
The user uses edges and vertices of the part
to form a 3-D object

Wire-frame model
part
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 Example

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 Wire-frame model

• The shape of the object is defined by a

collection of points (vertices) and a set of
edges.
• Edges – line or curved connects pair of points
• Conventional Approach - Place the geometry
entirely in the data structure.
• Another Approach - Procedural Approach

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 Wire-frame model
1- Wireframe modeling entities
• Analytic curves (lines, circles, ellipses, …….)
• Synthesis curves (parametric cubic curves, Bezier curves, B-spline
curves, …….)

• Example : tetrahedron

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 Disadvantages of wire-frame

• Tend to be not realistic

• Ambiguity
– complex model difficult to interpret.

What does this object look like?

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 Disadvantages of wire-frame
Which object does the previous wire-frame represent?

The use of shading and hidden surface removal technique can improve the
rendition.
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 Disadvantages of wire-frame

• Does not allow for use of photo realistic rendering

tools. *(some software capable of hidden line
removal on limited basis).
• No ability to determine computationally information
on mass properties (e.g volume, mass, moment etc)
and line of intersect between two faces of
intersecting models.
• No guarantee that the model definition is correct,
complete or manufacturable.

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 Advantages of wire-frame

• Easy to construct
• Most economical in term of time and memory
requirement.
• Used to model solid object.
• Often used for previewing objects in an
interactive scenario.

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 Surface Modeling

Surface modeling is more sophisticated than wireframe

modeling in that it defines not only the edges of a 3D
object, but also its surfaces.
In surface modeling, objects are defined by their bounding
faces.

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 SURFACE ENTITIES
Similar to wireframe entities, existing CAD/CAM
systems provide designers with both analytic and
synthetic surface entities.
Analytic entities include :
•Plane surface,
•Ruled surface,
•Surface of revolution, and
•Tabulated cylinder.
Synthetic entities include
•The bicubic Hermite spline surface,
•B-spline surface,
•Rectangular and triangular Bezier patches,
•Rectangular and triangular Coons patches, and
•Gordon surface.
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 Plane surface. This is the simplest surface. It
requires three noncoincident points to define an
infinite plane.

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 Ruled (lofted) surface. This is a linear surface. It
interpolates linearly between two boundary curves that
define the surface (rails). Rails can be any wireframe entity.
This entity is ideal to represent surfaces that do not have
any twists or kinks.

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 Surface of revolution. This is an axisymmetric
surface that can model axisymmetric objects. It is
generated by rotating a planar wireframe entity in
space about the axis of symmetry a certain angle.

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 Tabulated cylinder. This is a surface generated by
translating a planar curve a certain distance along a
specified direction (axis of the cylinder).

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Bezier surface. This is a surface that approximates
given input data. It is different from the previous
surfaces in that it is a synthetic surface. Similarly to
the Bezier curve, it does not pass through all given
data points. It is a general surface that permits,
twists, and kinks . The Bezier surface allows only
global control of the surface.

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 B-spline surface. This is a surface that can
approximate or interpolate given input data (Fig. 6-
9). It is a synthetic surface. It is a general surface
like the Bezier surface but with the advantage of
permitting local control of the surface.

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 Solid Modeling

Solid models give designers a complete descriptions of constructs, shape,

surface, volume, and density.

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 In CAD systems there are a number of representation schemes for solid
modeling include:
•Primitive creation functions.
•Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
•Sweeping
•Boundary Representation (BREP)

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 Primitive creation
functions:
These functions retrieve a
solid of a simple shape
from among the primitive
solids stored in the
program in advance and
create a solid of the same
shape but of the size
specified by the user.

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 Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)

CSG uses primitive

shapes as building
blocks and Boolean set
operators (U union,
difference, and 
intersection) to construct
an object.

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 Sweeping

Sweeping Sweeping
is a modeling
function in which a
planar closed domain
is translated or
revolved to form a
solid. When the
planar domain is
translated, the
modeling activity is
called translational
sweeping; when the
planar region is
revolved, it is called
swinging, or
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 Boundary Representation

Objects are represented by their bounded faces.

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 B-Rep Data Structure

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