Organic chemistry

Presented to: Dr Malik Saad Ullah

 Sufyan Iqbal
 Asad Ali
 Asjad ur Rehman
 Arsal Rafique
 Hashim
 Abdur Rehman
 Thingsto be discussed:
 Definition of Inductive Effect
 Explanation
 Types
 Application of Inductive Effect
 Definition:
 Permanent shifting of electrons in covalent bond
from low electronegative atom to high
electronegative atom.
H─Cl
 Covalent bond is formed by equal sharing of
electrons.
Example:
H . . H → H─H
 Sigma electrons are actually a single bond.
C──Cl H─Cl F─C
 Permanent effect
Explanation:
 Inductive effect decrease with increase in distance.

Example:
Cδ+─ C δ+─ C δ+─ F-δ
In this example, electrons are shifting from low
electronegative atom to
high electronegative. The carbon atom adjacent to
Flourine has greater inductive effect than the carbon
which is at the ᵧ relative to fluorine.
 Tertiary carbon Secondary carbon

 Primary carbon
 Examples of Benzene
 It can be depicted as follows:
 Now,we discuss inductive effect in a C-
chain. Let suppose a carbon chain to
which a halogen is attached at the
terminal end. Because of high electro
negativity, halogen atom attracts the
shared electron pair as discussed above.

 Asa result, polarity is established among

atoms of chain.
 It is shown below.

 The carbon atom having partial +ve

charge, now attracts the shared pair of
electrons from adjacent carbon atom, in
order to maintain the bond between C
and Cl.
 It is shown as below:

 In the same manner, newly developed

partially +ve charged attract the next
electron pair and the whole process
continues.
 It is depicted as follows:
POINT TO PONDER:
 Inductive effect is up to 4th carbon in a C-
chain and after 4th carbon, inductive
effect is negligible.
 TYPES OF INDUCTIVE EFFECT
Ingold classified inductive effect.

There are 2 types of inductive effect:

 Positive Inductive Effect
 Negative Inductive Effect
 NEGATIVE INDUCTIVE EFFECT
Those atoms whose electron affinity is
larger than that of H-atom, show –ve
inductive effect.
 POSITIVE INDUCTIVE EFFECT
Those atoms whose electron affinity is
less than that of H-atom, show +ve
inductive effect.
 Applications of inductive effect:
1- Effect on the bond length

 Distance between center of bonded ions are

called bond length or bond distance.
 •Bond length vary depending on many factors
but in general they are very consistent.
 •Bond orders affect bond length but bond length
of same order fothe same pair of atom in various
molecules are very consistent.
 Key Points
 •Bond length is the experimentally determined
average distance between two bonded atoms.
 •Bonded atoms vibrate due to thermal energy
available in the surroundings.
 •Bond lengths are typically in the range of 100-
200 pm (1-2 Å).
 •As a general trend, bond length decreases
across a row in the periodic table and increases
down a group.
 •Atoms with multiple bonds between them have
shorter bond lengths than singly bonded ones.
 diagram
 BOND LENGTH
 •Bond length is related to bond order, when
more electrons participate in bond formation
the bond will get shorter.
 •Bond length is also inversely related to bond
strength and the bond dissociation energy, as
( all other things being equal ) a stronger will
be shorter.
 •A comparison of bond length is shown in
following table.
 The Distance Between Two Bonded Atoms
 •The distance between two atoms
participating in a bond, known as the bond
length, can be determined experimentally.
 •X-ray diffraction of molecular crystals
allows for the determination of the three-
dimensional structure of molecules and the
precise measurement of inter nuclear
distances.
 •Various spectroscopic methods also exist for
estimating the bond length between two
atoms in a molecule.
 COMPARISON BETWEEN BOND LENGTHS

 •Single •-

 •Double •=

 •Triple •=
 BOND LENGTH
 The length of bond is determined by the
number of bonded electron.
 The higher the bond order, the stronger the
pull between the two atoms and the shorter
the bon length.
 Generally, the length of bond between two
atoms is approx. the sum of radii of two
atom , X+Y
 Bond length is given in picometer(pm) or
angstrom(A).
 Diagram:
 CONCLUSIONS
 •Distance between center of bonded ions are
called BOND LENGTH and BOND DISTANCE.
 •Bond length vary depending on many factors
however, they are very coherent.
 •Bond length is also inversely related to bond
strength and the bond dissociation energy, as
a stronger bond will be shorter.