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Lecture 1
Lecture 1
Lecture 1
Systems (S&AAS)
Lecture-1
Introduction
1
Lecture Outline
• Recommended Books
• Introduction
• Classification of Sensors
• Thermal Sensors
2
Recommended Readings
• The Mechatronic Handbook, Editor in Chief
Robert H. Bishop, The University of Texas at
Austin.
3
Introduction
• Sensors and actuators are two critical components
of every closed loop control system.
• Examples:
4
Introduction
• A sensing unit can be as simple as a single sensor or
can consist of additional components such as filters,
amplifiers, modulators, and other signal conditioners.
6
What is the difference between a
transducer and a sensor?
• A Sensor can sense in any form(usually electronic) i.e
due to some mechanical change, it can react in
electrical form. Thus there is a conversion, similar to
that of a transducer.
8
What is the difference between a
transducer and a sensor?
• So one way to define is that the output from a sensor
may or may not be meaningful i.e most of the times it
needs to be conditioned and converted into various
other forms.
• The transducer
output is always
meaningful.
9
What is the difference between a
transducer and a sensor?
• The output of a motor is meaningful. The output of a
loudspeaker is meaningful. They are transducers.
• We can say that Every transducer is also (or has) a sensor but
every sensor need not be a transducer. Sometimes it is.
10
What is the difference between a
transducer and a sensor?
• Sometimes in a sensor, there is no conversion at all.
– Ex. Thermometer, where the temperature is sensed and is directly
measured.
– Ex. RTD, Thermocouple etc where the temperature is sensed and the
measurement is made in terms of voltage.
• Thus you can say that a SENSOR may or may not have a
conversion and it only senses. A TRANSDUCER always involves
a conversion and also has signal conditioning involved.
11
Classification of Sensors
• The sensors are classified into the following
three major classes.
1. Thermal Sensors
2. Mechanical Sensors
3. Optical Sensors
12
Thermal Sensors
• Temperature is probably most widely controlled physical
quantity among all.
13
What is Temperature?
• Temperature is the measure of Thermal Energy.
373.15 𝐾 = 671.6 °𝑅
671.6 9 9
1𝐾 = °𝑅 = °𝑅 ⇒ 𝑇 (𝐾) = 𝑇(°𝑅)
373.15 5 5 16
Calibration
• The relative temperature scales differ from the absolute
scales only in a shift of the zero axis.
Calibration Point Temperature
K oR oF oC
𝑇 °𝐶 = 𝑇 𝐾 − 273.15
𝑇 °𝐹 = 𝑇 °𝑅 − 459.6
9
𝑇 °𝐹 = 𝑇 °𝐶 + 32
5 17
Resistive devices
• One of the primary methods for electrical measurement
of temperature involves changes in the electrical
resistance of certain material.
18
Resistive Devices
• RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)
– Based on Metal Resistance variation with Environment
• Thermistor
– Based on Semiconductor resistance variation with
environment.
19
Metal Resistance vs Temperature
• A metal is an assemblage of atoms in the solid state in which
the individual atoms are in an equilibrium with superimposed
vibration induced by thermal energy.
21
Resistance vs Temperature Approximation
• An examination of the Resistance vs Temperature curve shows that
the curves are very nearly linear.
• In fact, when only short temperature spans are considered, linearity
is even more evident.
22
Linear Approximation
• A linear approximation means
that we may develop an
equation for a straight line
that approximates the
resistance versus temperature
curve over some specified
span.
R T = R 𝑇𝑜 1 + 𝛼𝑜 ∆𝑇 𝑇1 < 𝑇 < 𝑇2
23
Linear Approximation
R T = R 𝑇𝑜 1 + 𝛼𝑜 ∆𝑇 𝑇1 < 𝑇 < 𝑇2
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
𝑅 𝑇 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑇
𝑅 𝑇𝑜 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑇𝑜
∆𝑇 = 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜
𝛼𝑜 = 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑇𝑜
1 𝑅2 − 𝑅1
𝛼𝑜 =
𝑅 𝑇𝑜 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
24
Example-1
• A Sample of metal resistance versus temperature has the
following measured values:
25
Example-1
• Find the linear approximation of resistance vs temperature
between 60oF and 90oF.
𝑅2 = 112.2Ω
𝑅 𝑇𝑜 = 110.2Ω
𝑅1 𝑇𝑜
𝑇1 𝑇2
1 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 1 112.2 − 106
𝛼𝑜 = = = 0.001875/℉
𝑅 𝑇𝑜 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 110.2 90 − 60 26
Example-1
• Thus the linear approximation
𝛼𝑜 = 0.001875/℉
is
𝑅2 = 112.2Ω
R T = R 𝑇𝑜 1 + 𝛼𝑜 ∆𝑇 𝑇1 < 𝑇 < 𝑇2
𝑅 𝑇𝑜 = 110.2Ω
R T = 110.2 1 + 0.001875(𝑇 − 75)
𝑅1 𝑇𝑜
𝑇1 𝑇2
27
Example-2
• A Sample of metal resistance versus temperature has the
following measured values:
28
Quadratic Approximation
• A quadratic approximation of R-T curve is more accurate
approximation.
• It includes both a linear term, as before, and a term that
varies as the square of the temperature.
𝑅 𝑇 = 𝑅 𝑇𝑜 1 + 𝛼1 ∆𝑇 + 𝛼2 (∆𝑇)2
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
𝑅 𝑇 = 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑇
𝑅 𝑇𝑜 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑇𝑜
∆𝑇 = 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜
𝛼1 = 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑇𝑜
𝛼2 = 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑇𝑜
29
Example-3
• A Sample of metal resistance versus temperature has the
following measured values:
30
Example-3
• Again, since 75oF is the midpoint we will
use this for To.
𝑅 𝑇𝑜 = 110.2 Ω
31
Example-3
𝑅 60 = 110.2 1 + 𝛼1 (60 − 75) + 𝛼2 (60 − 75)2 Eq.1
𝛼1 = 0.001875/℉
32
Example-4
• By what percentage do the predictions of the linear and
quadratic approximations vary from the actual values at
60oF and 85oF.
Solution
35
RTD
• RTD is a temperature sensor whose resistance increases
with rise in temperature.
36
Sensitivity
• An estimate of RTD sensitivity can be noted from typical
values of 𝛼𝑜 .
37
Response Time
• In general, RTD has a response time of 0.5 to 5sec or
more.
38
Construction
• RTD is simply a length of wire whose resistances is to be
mentioned as function of temperature.
39
Signal Conditioning
• In view of the very small fractional changes of resistance with
temperature (0.4%), the RTD is generally used in bridge
circuit.
40
Dissipation Constant
• Because the RTD is resistance, there is an 𝑖 2 𝑅 power
dissipated by the device itself that causes a slight heating
effect.
42
Example-5
• An TRD has 𝛼𝑜 = 0.005/℃, 𝑅 = 500Ω and a dissipation
constant of 𝑃𝐷 = 30𝑚𝑊/℃ at 20℃. RTD is used in bridge
circuit as shown below with 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 500Ω and 𝑅3 a variable
resistor used to null the bridge. If the supply is 10𝑉 and the RTD
is placed in a bath at 0℃ find the value of 𝑅3 to null the voltage.
43
Example-5
• First find out the value of RTD resistance at 0℃.
R T = R 𝑇𝑜 1 + 𝛼𝑜 ∆𝑇
R 0℃ = 450Ω
45
Range of RTD
• The effective range of RTD depends principally on the
type of wire used as the active element.
46
Effects of lead-wire Resistance
• Because the RTD is a resistive device, any resistance
elsewhere in the circuit will cause errors in the
readings for the sensor.
47
2-Wire Construction
• 2-wire construction is the least accurate of the 3 types
since there is no way of eliminating the lead wire
resistance from the sensor measurement.
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅𝐿1 + 𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑅𝑏
48
3-Wire Construction
• 3-wire construction is most commonly used in industrial
applications where the third wire provides a method for removing
the average lead wire resistance from the sensor measurement.
• This method assumes that wires 1, 2 & 3 are all the same
resistance
49
3-Wire Construction
• Resistance between 𝑅𝐿1 & 𝑅𝐿2 can be calculated as
𝑅12 − 𝑅23 = 𝑅𝑏
50
4-Wire Construction
• 4-wire construction is used primarily in the laboratory where
close accuracy is required.
• In a 4 wire RTD the actual resistance of the lead wires can be
determined and removed from the sensor measurement.
𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟
𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟 =
𝐼
52
RTD Packages
• Two basic packages
– Thin Film
– Wire Wound
53
RTD Packages
• Probe Type
54
Thermistor
• Thermistor represents another
class of temperature sensor that
measures temperature through
change of material resistance.
55
Sensitivity
• The sensitivity of thermistor is a significant factor in
their application.
56
Response Time
• For smallest bead thermistor in an oil bath (good
thermal contact) response time of 0.5s is typical.
57
Example-6
• A thermistor is to monitor room temperature. It has a
resistance of 3.5𝐾Ω at 20℃ with a slope of −10%/℃.
The dissipation constant is 𝑃𝐷 = 5𝑚𝑊/℃. It is proposed
to use the thermistor in the divider, as shown below, to
provide the voltage of 5𝑉 at 20℃. Evaluate the effect of
self heating.
58
Example-6
• At 20℃ thermistor resistance will be 3.5𝐾Ω
𝑅𝑇𝐻
𝑉𝐷 = 10𝑉
3.5𝐾 + 𝑅𝑇𝐻
3.5𝐾
𝑉𝐷 = 10𝑉 = 5𝑉
3.5𝐾 + 3.5𝐾
52
𝑃= = 7.1𝑚𝑊
3.5𝐾 59
Example-6
• Temperature rise of thermistor can be calculated as
𝑃
Δ𝑇 =
𝑃𝐷
7.1𝑚𝑊
Δ𝑇 = = 1.42℃
5𝑚𝑊/℃
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = 3 𝐾Ω
END OF LECTURE-1
61