Advance Operating System

Introduction to Operating
Systems
Introduction to Operating Systems

 What is an Operating System?

– Not always a clear definition as to what constitutes an OS.
– A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a
computer and the computer hardware.
 Operating system goals:
 Execute user programs and make solving user problems
easier.
 Make the computer system convenient to use.
 Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner.
 Operating System Definitions

 Resource Allocator : Manages and allocates

resources.
 Control Program : Controls the execution of
user programs and operations of I/O devices.
 Kernel – the one program running at all
times.
 OS Features Needed for Multi-
programming

 I/O routine supplied by the system.

 Memory management : The system must
allocate the memory to several jobs.
 CPU scheduling : The system must choose
among several jobs ready to run.
 Allocation of devices.
 Different ways of Operation

 Single-User Environment
 One User at a time
 Initially, running only one program at a time
 Now, Single-User PC allows several Programs to
run at the same time (e.g., Windows 95, Mac
System 7.x, OS/2)
 Can have WP(Word Processor and Spread Sheet
open at same time and `switch' between them.
 Different ways of Operation

 Multi-Access/Multi-user Environments
 Many users logged in at same time (e.g., via
campus network or Internet)
 Same application run several times, or many
different application run at the same time
 Each user appears to have all systems resources
available
 Different ways of Operation

 Multi-tasking/Multi-processing
 Definition “A process is an instance of a
program in execution”
 Processes are run apparently in parallel by
sharing system resources
 Multi-tasking does not imply Multi-user.
 Different ways of Operation

 Multi-programming
 Multi-tasking + instructions / data from different
processes co-resident in memory
 Reasons for different operating
requirements

 Many users interactively using same computer

system for many different tasks.
 Many Users running the same program e.g.,
Flight reservations.
 Few Users, or fully automated system, mainly for
checking system status e.g., real-time system.
 Batch system e.g., only supervisor interacts with
system
 General Purpose OS: Allows interaction and
batch processing.
Computer System

 Processor: Performs data processing

 Main memory: Stores both data and programs, typically
volatile
 Disks: Secondary memory devices which provide persistent
storage
 Network interface: Inter-machine communication
 Bus: Intra-machine communication

Memory Bus (processor-memory)

I/O Bus (disks, network interfaces, other I/O
devices, memory-bus)
Basic computer structure

CPU Memory

memory bus

I/O bus

Disk Net interface

Multiprocessors

CPU CPU
cache cache Memory

memory bus

I/O bus

disk Net interface

 Simple Scheme: More than one processor on the same bus

 Memory is shared among processors
 Alternative: System interconnection
 Single-image operating systems
Multiprocessors

 Multiprocessors are of two types

– Asymmetric multiprocessing (Master-Slave)
– Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP)
 Tandem: Uses both hardware and software
duplication to ensure continued operation despite
faults.
 Blade Servers: Multiple processor boards, I/O
boards, networking boards are placed in the same
chassis.
 Multi-Computers

CPU CPU
cache Memory cache Memory

memory bus memory bus

I/O bus I/O bus

network
Disk Net interface Net interface Disk

 Network of Computers: “Share-Nothing” Cheap

 Communication through message passing: Difficult to program
 Each system runs its own operating system
 History of OS

 First generation: 1945–55

 Human Operator-Programmer-User
– The machine was run from a console that had
display lights, toggle switches, a plug board or
punched cards, and a printer
– The programmer also “operated” the machine as
she/he interacted directly with the bare hardware
– Programs were entirely written in machine or
assembly language
– One running program had complete control of the
entire computer
 History of OS
 Second generation: 1955–65
 Separation between operators and
programmer
– First commercially viable machines: Developed by
GM (IBSYS).
– The programmer prepares her/his job off-line on
punched cards, brings the card deck to the
machine room and waits for results
– The human operator runs the job and delivers a
printed output
 Problem: Serial processing
 Solution: Batch Processing
 History of OS

 Third generation: 1965-80

 Problem: Despite batching, a lot of CPU time is still
wasted waiting for I/O instructions to complete
 UNIX was released in 1970. V6.0 in 1976 and V7.0 in
1978.
 Fourth generation: 1980-Present
 Released Dos 1.0 in 1981.
 In 1990 Windows 3.0.
 What is an Operating System

Application (user)

Operating System

Hardware
 A software layer between the hardware and the application
programs/users which provides a virtual machine interface: Easy
and Safe
 A resource manager that allows programs/users to share the
hardware resources: Fair and Efficient
How does an OS works

Application (user) System Calls Up calls

Hardware independent
OS
Hardware dependent Commands Interrupts

Hardware
 Receives requests from the application: System calls
 Satisfies the requests: May issue commands to hardware
 Handles hardware interrupts: May upcall the application
Files

Application/User: copy file1 file2 Naming, Protection,

Operations on files
Operating System: files, directories
Operations on disk
Hardware: Disk blocks...

 Traditional approach: OS does disk block allocation and caching

(buffer cache) , disk operation scheduling and replacement in the
buffer cache
 New approaches: Application-controlled cache replacement, log-
based allocation (makes writes fast)
Traditional File System

Application: Read/Write Files

OS: Translate file to disk blocks

Maintains buffer cache

Controls Disk Accesses: Read/Write Blocks

Hardware:
Mechanism Vs Policy

Application (user)

Operating System: Mechanism + Policy

Hardware

 Mechanism: Data structures and operations that implement the

abstraction.
 Policy: The procedure that guides the selection of a certain course
of action from among alternatives.
Application-Controlled Caching

Application: Read/Write Files Replacement Policy

OS: Translate file to disk blocks

Maintains buffer cache

Controls disk accesses: Read/Write Blocks

Hardware:
Traditional OS structure

 Monolithic/layered systems

One/N layers all executed in “kernel-mode”

Good performance

user
User process
System Calls
OS Kernel file memory
system system

Hardware
Micro-kernel OS

client file memory

User Mode process server server

Micro-Kernel IPC

Hardware

Client-Server model, IPC between clients and servers

The micro-kernel provides protected communication

OS functions implemented as user-level servers

Flexible but efficiency is the problem

Easy to extend for distributed systems
Extensible OS kernel

process process
User Mode

user default
Extensible Kernel memory memory
service service

Hardware

User processes can load customized OS services into
the kernel

Good performance but protection and scalability
become problems
Introduction to Operating Systems

END OF LECTURE