Unit 3-OB

What is a Group?
 A group can be defined as two or more humans that
interact with one another, accept expectations and
obligations as members of the group, and share a common
identity. By this definition, society can be viewed as a large
group, though most social groups are considerably smaller.
 A true group exhibits some degree of social cohesion and
is more than a simple collection or aggregate of individuals,
such as people waiting at a bus stop. Characteristics shared
by members of a group may include interests, values,
ethnic or social background, and kinship ties.
TYPES OF GROUPS
1. A primary group is a typically small Social group whose members share close,
personal, enduring relationships. These groups are marked by members'
concern for one another, shared activities and culture, and long periods of time
spent together. Examples include family, childhood friends, and highly
influential social groups (team sports groups, academic groups, etc...).
2. People in a secondary group interact on a less personal level than in a primary
group, and their relationships are temporary rather than long lasting. Since
secondary groups are established to perform functions, people’s roles are more
interchangeable.
 The theory of primary and secondary groups was put forward by Charles
Horton Cooley, a Sociologist. He labelled these groups as "primary" because
people often experience these sort of groups early in their life. Relationships
formed in primary groups are often long-lasting and goals in themselves. They
also are often psychologically comforting to the individuals involved and
provide a source of support and encouragement. Primary groups play an
important role in the development of personal identity.
 3.A reference group is a sociological concept referring to a group to which an individual or another
group is compared. (Merton )
 Reference groups are used in order to evaluate and determine the nature of a given individual or other
group's characteristics and sociological attributes. It is the group to which the individual relates or
aspires relate himself or self psychologically. It becomes the individual's frame of reference and source
for ordering his or her experiences, perceptions, cognition, and ideas of self. It is important for
determining a person's self-identity, attitudes, and social ties. It becomes the basis of reference in
making comparisons or contrasts and in evaluating one's appearance and performance.

 "[Reference groups are] groups that people refer to when evaluating their [own] qualities,
circumstances, attitudes, values and behaviors." - William Thompson & Joseph Hickey
4. An ethnic group is a group of humans whose members identify with each other, through
a common heritage that is real or presumed.
 Ethnic identity is further marked by the recognition from others of a group's
distinctiveness and the recognition of common cultural, linguistic, religious, behavioural
traits as indicators of contrast to other groups
 .a. Pertaining to race; peculiar to a race or nation . Also, pertaining to or having common racial,
cultural, religious, or linguistic characteristics, esp. designating a racial or other group within a
larger system; foreign, exotic.
 b ethnic minority (group), a group of people differentiated from the rest of the community by
racial origins or cultural background, and claiming or enjoying official recognition of their
group identity
Other types of groups
 Peer group - A peer group is a group of approximately the same age, social status, and
interests. Generally, people are relatively equal in terms of power when they interact with
peers.
 Clique- An informal, tight-knit group, usually in a school or college setting, that shares
common interests. There is an established yet shifting power structure in most Cliques.
 Club- A club is a group, which usually requires one to apply to become a member. Such
clubs may be dedicated to particular activities, such as sporting clubs.

 Community - A community is a group of people with a commonality or sometimes a

complex net of overlapping commonalities, often - but not always - in proximity with one
another with some degree of continuity over time. They often have some organization
and leaders.
 Franchise- this is an organization which runs several instances of a business in many
locations.
 Gang - A gang is usually an urban group that gathers in a particular area. It is a group of
people that often hang around each other. They can be like some clubs, but much less
formal.
 Mob - A mob is usually a group of people that has taken the law into their own hands.
Mobs are usually a group which gather temporarily for a particular reason.
Group dynamics
 Group dynamics is the study of groups, and also a general term for group processes.
Because the members interact and influence each other, groups develop a number of
dynamic processes that separate them from a random collection of individuals. These
processes include norms, roles, relations, development, need to belong, social influence,
and effects on behavior. The field of group dynamics is primarily concerned with small
group behavior. Groups may be classified as aggregate, primary, secondary and category
groups.
 In organizational development (OD), or group dynamics, the phrase "group process"
refers to the understanding of the behaviour of people in groups, such as task groups,
that are trying to solve a problem or make a decision. An individual with expertise in
'group process, such as a trained facilitator, can assist a group in accomplishing its
objective by diagnosing how well the group is functioning as a problem-solving or
decision-making entity and intervening to alter the group's operating behaviour.
 Because people gather in groups for reasons other than task accomplishment, group
process occurs in other types of groups such as personal growth groups (e.g. encounter
groups, study groups, prayer groups). In such cases, an individual with expertise in group
process can be helpful in the role of facilitator.
TEAM BUILDING
 Team building refers to a wide range of activities, usually in a business
context, for improving team performance. Team building is pursued via
a variety of practices, and can range from simple bonding exercises to
complex simulations and multi-day team building retreats designed to
develop a team (including group assessment and group-dynamic
games, usually falling somewhere in between. It generally sits within
the theory and practice of organizationl development, but can also be
applied to sports teams, school groups, and other contexts. Team
building is not to be confused with "team recreation" that consists of
activities for teams that are strictly recreational. Teambuilding is an
important factor in any environment, its focus is to speacilise in
bringing out the best in a team to ensure self development, positive
communication, leadership skills and the ability to work closely
together as a team to problem solve.

Dimensions of group process
 Some of the aspects of group process that a process consultant would look at include:
 Patterns of communication and coordination
 Patterns of influence
 Roles / relationship
 Patterns of dominance (e.g. who leads, who defers)
 Balance of task focus vs social focus
 Level of group effectiveness
 How conflict is handled
 Groups of individuals gathered together to achieve a goal or objective, either as a
committee or some other grouping, go through several predicatable stages before useful
work can be done. These stages are a function of a number of variables, not the least of
which is the self-identification of the role each member will tend to play, and the
emergence of natural leaders and individuals who will serve as sources of information.
Any individual in a leadership position whose responsibilities involve getting groups of
individuals to work together should both be conversant with the phases of the group
process and possess the skills necessary to capitalize on these stages to accomplish the
objective of forming a productive, cohesive team.
Communication and Interaction
Group Communication refers to the nature of
communication that occurs in groups that are between
3 and 12 to 20 individuals . Small group
communication generally takes place in a context that
mixes interpersonal communication interactions with
social clustering .
Group Think
 Groupthink is a type of thought exhibited by group members who try
to minimize conflict and reach consensus without critically testing,
analyzing, and evaluating ideas. Individual creativity, uniqueness, and
independent thinking are lost in the pursuit of group cohesiveness, as
are the advantages of reasonable balance in choice and thought that
might normally be obtained by making decisions as a group. During
groupthink, members of the group avoid promoting viewpoints outside
the comfort zone of consensus thinking. A variety of motives for this
may exist such as a desire to avoid being seen as foolish, or a desire to
avoid embarrassing or angering other members of the group.
Groupthink may cause groups to make hasty, irrational decisions,
where individual doubts are set aside, for fear of upsetting the group’s
balance .
Bruce Tuckman's classic description of the stages of group
development
 Bruce W Tuckman is a respected educational psychologist who first
described the (then) four stages of group development in
1965. Looking at the behaviour of small groups in a variety of
environments, he recognised the distinct phases they go through, and
suggested they need to experience all four stages before they achieve
maximum effectiveness. He refined and developed the model in 1977
(in conjunction with Mary Ann Jensen) with the addition of a fifth
stage. Since then, others have attempted to adapt and extend the
model - although sometimes with more of an eye on rhyme than reason
 FOUR STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT
 Tuckman described the four distinct stages that a group can as it comes
together and starts to operate. This process can be subconscious,
although an understanding of the stages can help a group reach
effectiveness more quickly and less painfully.
Stage 1: Forming

Individual behaviour is driven by a desire to be accepted

by the others, and avoid controversy or conflict. But individuals
are also gathering information and impressions –
about each other, and about the scope of the task
and how to approach it. This is a comfortable stage to be in
but the avoidance of conflict and threat means that not much
actually gets done .
Stage 2: Storming
 Individuals in the group can only remain nice to each other
for so long, as important issues start to be
addressed. These may relate to the work of the group itself,
or to roles and responsibilities within the group. Some will
observe that it's good to be getting into the real issues,
whilst others will wish to remain in the comfort and
security of stage 1. Depending on the culture of the
organisation and individuals, the conflict will be more or
less suppressed, but it'll be there, under the surface. To deal
with the conflict, individuals may feel they are winning or
losing battles, and will look for structural clarity and rules
to prevent the conflict persisting
Stage 3: Norming
 As Stage 2 evolves, the "rules of engagement" for the group
become established, and the scope of the group's tasks or
responsibilities are clear and agreed. Having had their
arguments, they now understand each other better, and
can appreciate each other's skills and
experience. Individuals listen to each other, appreciate and
support each other, and are prepared to change pre-
conceived views: they feel they're part of a cohesive,
effective group. However, individuals have to work hard to
attain this stage, and may resist any pressure to change -
especially from the outside - for fear that the group will
break up, or revert to a storm.
 Stage 4: Performing
Not all groups reach this stage, characterized by a
state of interdependence and flexibility. Everyone
knows each other well enough to be able to work
together, and trusts each other enough to allow
independent activity. Roles and responsibilities
change according to need in an almost seamless
way. Group identity, loyalty and morale are all
high, and everyone is equally task-orientated and
people-orientated. This high degree of comfort
means that all the energy of the group can be
directed towards the task(s) in hand.
 Stage 5: Adjourning
 This is about completion and disengagement, both
from the tasks and the group members. Individuals
will be proud of having achieved much and glad to
have been part of such an enjoyable group. They need
to recognise what they've done, and consciously move
on. Some authors describe stage 5 as "Deforming and
Mourning", recognising the sense of loss felt by group
members.
 Tuckman's original work simply described the way he had observed
groups evolve, whether they were conscious of it or not. But for us the
real value is in recognising where a group is in the process, and helping
it to move to the Perform stage. In the real world, groups are often
forming and changing, and each time that happens, they can move to a
different Tuckman Stage. A group might be happily Norming or
Performing, but a new member might force them back into Storming.
Seasoned leaders will be ready for this, and will help the group get back
to Performing as quickly as possible.

 Many work groups live in the comfort of Norming, and are fearful of
moving back into Storming, or forward into Performing. This will
govern their behaviour towards each other, and especially their reaction
to change.
Skills to Manage
Group Development
 There are different skills and techniques needed to guide a group through the stages.
 Forming
 Be inclusive and empowering. Make sure that everyone connected to the group
 is involved. Seek out diverse members and talents and model inclusive
 leadership. Identify common purposes and targets of change. Create an
 environment that fosters trust and builds commitment to the group.
 Storming
 Be ethical and open to other people’s ideas. Allow differences of opinion to be
 discussed. Handle conflict directly and civilly. Keep everyone focused on the
 purpose of the group and the topic of conflict. Avoid personal attacks. Examine
 biases that may be blocking progress or preventing another member to be
 treated fairly.

 Norming
 Be fair with processes. New members should feel welcomed, informed, and
 involved. Continue to clarify expectations of individuals and of the group.
 Engage in collaboration and teamwork.

 Performing
 Celebrate accomplishments and find renewal in relationships. Encourage and
 empower members to learn new skills and to share roles that keep things fresh
 and exciting. Revisit purpose and rebuild commitment.
 Information
Stages in group problem solving
 Orientation
The relationships of one member with another have to be worked out. Members are disoriented, not
able to solve problems realistically. Questions of roles and power have not been resolved - balance has
not yet been achieved.

 Deliberation
The interactive process of the group is brought to bear on the problem. This is the research, data
analysis phase. Roles emerge, task and maintenance role performances are clearer. Claims for power
(expertise, experience etc) are signalled by members.

 Conflict
Individuals formulate their positions. Unfavourable comments are frequent. Polarization of attitudes
occurs, and a reaction to the emergent roles and power distribution. Further counter claims for power
are made.
 Emergence
There is a reduction in the amount of conflict, and fewer unfavourable comments. Ambiguous
comments permit a shift in ground. Role for task orientation and maintenance orientations are
implicitly allocated to individuals - ie power is distributed and balanced.
 Trust
This stage is marked by the sharing of honest communications. It is the best phase for problem
solving, where personal animosities (or organizational games) are minimal. Balance has occurred
within the group. Role allocations are accepted by role performers.
 Reinforcement
Argument is minimal, as members become aware of the inevitability of the decision they are to make.
Balance has been superseded by problem solving as the focus of attention. Decisions are made.
Group Conflict
 Group conflicts, also called group intrigues, is where social behaviour
causes groups of individuals to conflict with each other. It can also refer
to a conflict within these groups. This conflict is often caused by
differences in social norms, values, and religion.
 Both constructive and destructive conflict occurs in most small groups.
It is very important to accentuate the constructive conflict and
minimize the destructive conflict. Conflict is bound to happen, but if
we use it constructively then it need not be a bad thing.
 When destructive conflict is used in small groups, it is
counterproductive to the long term goal.Using constructive conflict
within small groups has the opposite effect.. In this sense, bringing up
problems and alternative solutions while still valuing others in small
groups allows the group to work forward.

 Let the conflict come out into the open so people can
discuss it. If the conflict is kept under the surface,
members will not be able to build trusting
relationships and this could harm the group’s
effectiveness. If handled properly, the group will
come out of the conflict with a stronger sense of
cohesiveness then before.
Group Cohesiveness
 Group Cohesiveness is the force bringing group members closer together.
Cohesiveness has two dimensions: emotional (or personal) and task-related.
The emotional aspect of cohesiveness, which was studied more often, is derived
from the connection that members feel to other group members and to their
group as a whole. That is, how much do members like to spend time with other
group members? Do they look forward to the next group meeting? Task-
cohesiveness refers to the degree to which group members share group goals
and work together to meet these goals. That is, is there a feeling that the group
works smoothly as one unit or do different people pull in different directions?
 Factors Influencing Group Cohesiveness The forces that push group
members together can be positive (group-based rewards) or negative (things
lost upon leaving the group). The main factors that influence group
cohesiveness are: members’ similarity, group size, entry difficulty, group
success and external competition and threats. Often, these factors work
through enhancing the identification of the individual with the group she/he
belongs to as well as their beliefs of how the group can fulfill their personal
needs.
 Group norms are the behavioral expectations and
cues within a group. This sociological term has been
defined as "the rules that a group uses for appropriate
and inappropriate values, beliefs, attitudes and
behaviors." These rules may be explicit or implicit.
Failure to follow the rules can result in severe
punishments, including exclusion from the group.
They have also been described as the customary rules
of behavior that coordinate our interactions with
others.
GROUP MORALE
 Morale, also known as esprit de corps when
discussing the morale of a group, is an intangible
term used for the capacity of people to maintain
belief in an institution or a goal, or even in oneself
and others. According to Alexander H. Leighton
"morale is the capacity of a group of people to pull
together persistently and consistently in pursuit of
a common purpose".
 Morale is unrelated to morality (the ability to
distinguish right and wrong).
GROUP DIAGNOSIS
 How to diagnose group problems?
The most common group problems are:
CONFLICT,
APATHY&NONPARTICIPATION,
INADEQUATE DECISION MAKING.
Symptoms of conflict
 Every suggestions made seems impossible for practical
reasons
 Members are impatient with one another
 Each member has a different idea of what the group is
supposed to do
 Possible diagnosis
-The group may have been given an impossible job and
they may be feeling frustrated due to the demands of
the job.
SYMPTOMS OF APATHY
 APATHY may be expressed in the form of indifference
to the group task, lack of genuine enthusiasm for the
job, lack of persistence etc. symptoms are in the form
of frequent yawns, low level of participation, members
coming late, frequently absent, failure to follow
decisions etc.
Symptoms of inadequate decision making
 The group swings between too rapid decisions or
having difficulty in deciding anything. Embarrassment
or reluctance to discuss the problem in hand, solutions
proposed are frequently attacked as unrealistic.
 Diagnosis: Group lacks cohesiveness and faith in itself.
The following methods are used to enhance Intergroup
relations by a leader in a group setting

 Empathy, warmth and genuineness

The role of the leader is to study the members and
mobilize them in such a way that they may develop
insight into their own problems through expressing
empathy, warmth and genuineness.
 Self disclosure-Leader expresses his own experiences
in front of the group to enhance their understanding
of the group situation
-

Investigation-The leader prepares an interview schedule for

the members to know about their inner feelings to aid the
diagnose of the problem.
-Support-Leader gives an opportunity to the members to
express their feelings and enables them to take their own
decisions.
-Cognitive restructuring- CR is a complex strategy for
changing perceptions of emotional sets, which seem to
impede the group member’s abilities to change. sometimes
group fails to reach a solution due to the complexity of the
problem. Here the leader helps them to perceive reality