1.

2 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
• 1.2.1 Mass and Gravity
• 1.2.2 Stress and strength
• 1.2.3 Strain
• 1.2.4 Modulus of Elasticity
• 1.2.5 Flexural loads
• 1.2.6 Fatigue Strength
• 1.2.7 Poisson's ratio
• 1.2.8 Creep
 Gravity and Mass
The mass of an object is defined from its
acceleration when a force is applied, i.e. from the
equation F = Ma, not from gravity.
Gravity is normally the largest force acting on a
structure. The gravitational force on a mass M is:
F = Mg
where g = 9.81 m/ s 2
The gravitational force on an object is called its
weight. Thus an object will have a weight of 9.81N
per kg of mass
 1.2 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
• 1.2.1 Mass and Gravity
• 1.2.2 Stress and strength
• 1.2.3 Strain
• 1.2.4 Modulus of Elasticity
• 1.2.5 Flexural loads
• 1.2.6 Fatigue Strength
• 1.2.7 Poisson's ratio
• 1.2.8 Creep
 Types of strength
In engineering the term strength is always
defined and is probably one of the following
 Compressive strength
 Tensile strength
 Shear strength
depending on the type of loading.
 Forces

This cylinder
Compression
This cylinder is in
compression
, tension,
is in Tension
bending and
shear

Flexural (bending)
stress
Shear
Stress
Tension and Compression
Structures lab
Testing for strength
Applying Loads
 Stress
This is a measure of the internal resistance in
a material to an externally applied load. For
direct compressive or tensile loading the
stress is designated  and is defined as:

load W
stress  =
area A
 Types of stress
Tensile load
Compressive
load

Compressive Tensile
stress Stress

Compressive
load Tensile load
 Measuring:
Stress = Load/area
 Shear Stress
Similarly in shear the shear stress  is a
measure of the internal resistance of a
material to an externally applied shear load.
The shear stress is defined as:
load W
shear stress  =
area resisting shear A
 Shear stress
Area resisting
shear

Shear Force

Shear force
 Ultimate Strength
The strength of a material is a measure of the
stress that it can take when in use. The
ultimate strength is the measured stress at
failure but this is not normally used for design
because safety factors are required. The
normal way to define a safety factor is :
stress at failure Ultimate stress
safety factor = 
stress when loaded Permissible stress
 1.2 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
• 1.2.1 Mass and Gravity
• 1.2.2 Stress and strength
• 1.2.3 Strain
• 1.2.4 Modulus of Elasticity
• 1.2.5 Flexural loads
• 1.2.6 Fatigue Strength
• 1.2.7 Poisson's ratio
• 1.2.8 Creep
 Strain
We must also define strain. In engineering this is
not a measure of force but is a measure of the
deformation produced by the influence of stress. For
tensile and compressive loads:
increase in length x
strain  =
original length L
Strain is dimensionless, i.e. it is not measured in
metres, killogrammes etc.
shear displacement x
shear strain  
width L
For shear loads the strain is defined as the angle 
This is measured in radians
 Shear stress and strain
Area resisting
shear
Shear displacement (x)

Shear Force

L Shear strain is angle 

Shear force
 Units of stress and strain
• The basic unit for Force and Load is the Newton (N)
which is equivalent to kg m/s2. One kilogramme (kg)
weight is equal to 9.81 N.
• In industry the units of stress are normally Newtons per
square millimetre (N/mm2) but this is not a base unit for
calculations.
• The MKS unit for pressure is the Pascal. 1 Pascal = 1
Newton per square metre
• Pressure and Stress have the same units 1 MPa = 1
N/mm2
• Strain has no dimensions. It is expressed as a percentage
or in microstrain (s).
• A strain of 1 s is an extension of one part per million. A
strain of 0.2% is equal to 2000 s
Measuring: Strain = extension/length
 Elastic and Plastic deformation

Stress Stress

Strain Strain
Permanent
Deformation

Elastic deformation Plastic deformation

 Stress-Strain curve for steel
Yield
Plastic

0.2%
proof Failure
stress

Stress Elastic

0.2% Strain
 Steel Test in Laboratory
High Tensile Steel

40000

30000
Load N

20000

10000

0
-1 0 1 2 3 4
Extension m m (extensom eter)
 Energy absorbed

Stress
(force)
Area = average stress

final strain
= Energy absorbed
= work done

Strain (distance)
Final strain
 1.2 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
• 1.2.1 Mass and Gravity
• 1.2.2 Stress and strength
• 1.2.3 Strain
• 1.2.4 Modulus of Elasticity
• 1.2.5 Flexural loads
• 1.2.6 Fatigue Strength
• 1.2.7 Poisson's ratio
• 1.2.8 Creep
 Modulus of Elasticity
If the strain is "elastic" Hooke's law may be used to
define
Stress W L
Youngs M odulus E = = 
Strain x A
Young's modulus is also called the modulus of
elasticity or stiffness and is a measure of how much
strain occurs due to a given stress. Because strain is
dimensionless Young's modulus has the units of
stress or pressure
Measuring modulus of elasticity
Initial Tangent and Secant Modulus
 1.2 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
• 1.2.1 Mass and Gravity
• 1.2.2 Stress and strength
• 1.2.3 Strain
• 1.2.4 Modulus of Elasticity
• 1.2.5 Flexural loads
• 1.2.6 Fatigue Strength
• 1.2.7 Poisson's ratio
• 1.2.8 Creep
Flexural Strength
Load W

d=depth
Compression region

Tension region b=breadth

Span L
deflection x
 1.2 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
• 1.2.1 Mass and Gravity
• 1.2.2 Stress and strength
• 1.2.3 Strain
• 1.2.4 Modulus of Elasticity
• 1.2.5 Flexural loads
• 1.2.6 Fatigue Strength
• 1.2.7 Poisson's ratio
• 1.2.8 Creep
 Fatigue

Failure

Stress

Strain
 1.2 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
• 1.2.1 Mass and Gravity
• 1.2.2 Stress and strength
• 1.2.3 Strain
• 1.2.4 Modulus of Elasticity
• 1.2.5 Flexural loads
• 1.2.6 Fatigue Strength
• 1.2.7 Poisson's ratio
• 1.2.8 Creep
 Poisson’s Ratio
• This is a measure of the amount by which a solid
"spreads out sideways" under the action of a load
from above. It is defined as:
(lateral strain) / (vertical strain)
and is dimensionless.
• Note that a material like timber which has a "grain
direction" will have a number of different
Poisson's ratios corresponding to loading and
deformation in different directions.
How to calculate deflection if the proof stress is applied and
then partially removed.
If a sample is loaded up to the 0.2% proof stress and then unloaded to a stress s
the strain x = 0.2% + s/E where E is the Young’s modulus

Yield
Plastic

0.2% proof stress

Failure

s
Stress

0.2% Strain

0.002 s/E