PHYSICAL SEPARATION PROCESSES

ECH3118
FAIZAH MD YASIN

Separation Process -
Centrifuge
 Introduction
 Centrifugal settling or sedimentation
 separation of liquids and particles based on density
 separation of particles from a fluid by centrifugal forces acting on the particles
 can be used to separate cells from a culture liquid, cell debris from a broth, and a group of
precipitates
 used on particles that cannot be settled easily in gravity settling – smaller particles
 used to separate small amounts of a heterogeneous mixture. Test tubes containing the mixture
are spun around very fast so that the solid gets flung to the bottom
 The mixtures are spun horizontally in balanced containers, and the rotation sets up centripetal
forces causing the mixture’s components to separate according to their densities
 does not change relative settling velocities
 overcome
 disturbing effect of Brownian motion
 free convective currents
 gives faster results than gravity settling
Separating Blood
A centrifuge is used to separate blood plasma from blood cells. As
the test tubes spin, the heavier blood cells sink to the bottom.
Centrifuges are useful in laboratories and on an industrial scale for
separating solids from suspension in liquids. For example, in the
food industry, a centrifuge is used to separate cream from milk or
yeast from fermented malt. Usually when the heaviest particles
have settled to the bottom, the top liquid is decanted or poured off
to separate the liquid layer from the bottom layer.
 Centrifugal Motion

• Centrifugal acceleration
= rω2
• ω is the angular velocity
in rad/s
• r is the radius of rotation
• Centrifugal force = mrω2
• m is the mass of the
particle
 Compared to gravity
• mg
• Acceleration constant
• In direction of earth
• Equilibrium velocity reached
• Terminal velocity given by:
d 2  p   f g
uT 
18
d is particle diameter (m)
ρp is the particle density (kg/m3)
ρf is the fluid density (kg/m3)
g is acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
 is the fluid viscosity (Pa.s)
• mrω2
• Acceleration increases with r
• Acceleration increases with ω
• Away from axis of rotation
• Equilibrium velocity never
reached
• Instantaneous velocity:
r 2
u  uT
g
uT is the terminal velocity of the particle
r is the distance from axis of rotation
ω is the angular velocity
Terminology

Suspension:
the mixed material added into the
centrifuge tube
Pellet or precipitate:
hard-packed concentration of particles
after centrifugation
Supernatant:
clarified liquid above the precipitate
 Application

 separation of cream from whole milk

 separation of cellular materials
 beers
 vegetable oil
 fish-protein-concentration
 fruit juice
 drying crystals
 separation of emulsion into liquids or solid-liquid
 remove dust particles from air
 vacuum cleaner
 Forced Developed in Centrifugal Separation
1. Introductions
• Centrifugal separators use the common principal that an object
whirled about an axis or center point a constant radial distance from
the point is acted on by a force
• The object is constantly changing direction and is thus accelerating,
even though the rotational speed is constant
• This centripetal force acts in a direction toward the center of rotation
• In cylindrical container, the contents of fluid and solids exert an equal
and opposite force, called centrifugal force, outward to the walls of
the container
• This cause the settling or sedimentation of particles through a layer of
liquid or filtration of a liquid through a bed of filter cake held inside a
perforated rotating chamber
Forced Developed in Centrifugal Separation

(a)initial slurry feed entering,

(b)settling of solids from a liquid,
(c)separation of two liquid fractions.
Forced Developed in Centrifugal Separation

a cylindrical bowl is shown rotating, with

a slurry feed of solid particles and liquid
being admitted at the center.

(a)initial slurry feed entering

Forced Developed in Centrifugal Separation

The feed enters and is immediately thrown

outward to the walls of the container.
The liquid and solids are now acted upon by the
vertical and the horizontal centrifugal forces
The liquid layer then assumes the equilibrium
position, with the surface almost vertical
The particles settle horizontally outward and press
against the vertical bowl wall

(b) settling of solids from a liquid

Forced Developed in Centrifugal Separation

Two liquids having different densities

are being separated by the centrifuge
The denser fluid will occupy the outer
periphery, since the centrifugal force on
it is greater

(c) separation of two liquid fractions.

• Centrifugal force

ae= acceleration from a centrifugal force (m/s2)

r = radial distance from centre
 = angular velocity (rad/s)
• Rotational speed, N rev/min

• Gravitational Force,

• Centrifugal force in terms of gravitational force

 Example
Force in a centrifuge
A centrifuge having a radius of the bowl of 0.1016 m is
rotating at N = 1000 rev/min.

a)Calculate the centrifugal force developed in terms of

gravity forces.
b)Compare this force to that for a bowl with a radius of
0.2032 m rotating at the same rev/min.
Given: (a) r = 0.1016 m (a)
(b) r = 0.2032 m
N = 1000 rev/min

Calculate: centrifugal force

Fc
 0.001118rN 2
Fg
 113.6g

Fc
 0.001118rN 2
Fg
 227.2g
Equations for Rates of Settling in Centrifuges

Particle settling in
sedimenting tubular-bowl
centrifuge.
 Equations for Rates of Settling in Centrifuges

1. General equation for settling

• The feed enters at the bottom, and it is assumed that all the liquid
moves upward at a uniform velocity, carrying solid particles with it
• The particle is assumed to be moving radially at its terminal settling
velocity vt
• The trajectory or path of the particle is as shown
• A particle of a given size is removed from the liquid if sufficient
residence time is available for the particle to
reach the wall of the bowl, where it is held
• The length of the bowl is b m
 Equations for Rates of Settling in Centrifuges

• The residence time tT is equal to the volume of liquid V m3 in the

bowl divided by the feed volumetric flow rate q in m3/s. The volume
V = πb(r22-r12)
• Substituting into Eq. (10) and solving for q,

(11)

• Particles having diameters smaller than that calculated from Eq.

(11) will not reach the wall of the bowl and will go out with the exit
liquid
• Larger particles will reach the wall and be removed from the liquid
 Equations for Rates of Settling in Centrifuges
• A cut point or critical diameter Dpc can be defined as the diameter
of a particle that reaches half the distance between r1 and r2.
• This particle moves a distance of half the liquid layer or (r2-r1)/2
during the time this particle is in the centrifuge

(12)

• At this flow rate qc, particles with a diameter greater than Dpc will
predominantly settle to the wall and most smaller particles will
remain in the liquid.
 Example

Settling in a centrifuge
A viscous solution containing particles with a density
1461 kg/m3 is to be clarified by centrifugation. The
solution density is 801 kg/m3 and its viscosity is 100 cp.
The centrifuge has bowl with r2 = 0.02225 m, r1 =
0.00716 m and height b = 0.1970 m. Calculate the
critical particle diameter of the largest particles in the
exit stream if N=23000 rev/min and the flowrate q =
0.002832 m3/h.
 viscous solution containing particles
p = 1461 kg/m3
Given:  = 801 kg/m3,  = 100 cp
bowl: r2 = 0.02225 m, r1 = 0.00716m
N = 23000 rev/min
q = 0.002832 m3/h

Calculate: critical diameter

 Example : Solution

 Convert rotation into rad/s

2N

60
 Bowl volume

V  b(r22  r12 )
 Convert flow rate
0.002832
qc 
3600
 Use Eqn. to find Dpc
 Equations for Rates of Settling in Centrifuges

3. Sigma values and scale-up for centrifuge

• A useful physical characteristic of a tubular bowl centrifuge can be derived by
multiplying and dividing Eq. (12) by 2g to obtain

(18)

• where vt is the terminal settling velocity of the particle in a gravitational field

and

(19)

• where Σ is a physical characteristic of the centrifuge and not of the fluid-particle

system being separated.
• The value of Σ is really the area in m2 of a gravitational settler that will have the
same sedimentation characteristics as the centrifuge for the same feed rate.
Equations for Rates of Settling in Centrifuges

• To scale up from a laboratory test of q1 and Σ1 to q2 (for vt1 =

vt2)
(21)

• This scale-up procedure is dependable for centrifuges of

similar type and geometry and if the centrifugal forces are
within a factor of 2 from each other
• If different configurations are involved, efficiency factor E
should be used, where q1/Σ1E1 = q2/Σ2 E2.
Equations for Rates of Settling in Centrifuges

Tubular bowl centrifuge for

separating two liquid phases.
 Equations for Rates of Settling in Centrifuges
4. Separation of liquids in a centrifuge
• In Fig. below, a tubular-bowl centrifuge is shown in which the
centrifuge is separating two liquid phases, one a heavy liquid with
density ρH kg/m3 and the second a light liquid with density ρL.
• The distances shown are as follows: r1 is radius to surface of light
liquid layer, r2 is radius to liquid-liquid interface, and r4 is radius to
surface of heavy liquid downstream
• To locate the interface, a balance must be made
of the pressures in the two layers and the interface
position can be calculated as follows:

(27)
 Example
In a vegetable-oil-refining process, an aqueous phase is being separated
from the oil phase in a centrifuge. The density of the oil is 919.5 kg/m3 and
that of the aqueous phase is 980.3 kg/m3. The radius r1 for overflow of the
light liquid has been set at 10.160 mm and the outlet for the heavy liquid at
10.414 mm. Calculate the location of the interface in the centrifuge.
Solution
The densities are ρL = 919.5 and ρH = 980.3 kg/m3.Substituting
into Eq. (27) and solving for r2,
 Centrifuge Equipment
1. Tubular centrifuge
• The bowl is tall and has a narrow diameter, 100 - 150 mm.
• Such centrifuge, known as super-centrifuges, develop a force about 13000
times the force of gravity.
• Some narrow, centrifuges. Having a diameter of 75 mm and very high
speeds or so rev/min, are known as ultracentrifuges
• These centrifuges are often used to separate liquid-liquid emulsions
 Centrifuge Equipment
2. Disk bowl centrifuge
• The feed enters the actual compartment at the bottom and travels upward
through vertically spaced feed holes, filling the spaces between the disks
• The holes divide the vertical assembly into an inner section, where mostly
light liquid is present, and an outer section, where mainly heavy liquid is
present. The heavy liquid flows beneath the underside of a disk to the
periphery of the bowl
• The light liquid flows over the upper side of the disks and toward the inner
outlet
• Any small amount of heavy solids is thrown outer wall
• Periodic cleaning is required to remove solids deposited
• Disk bowl centrifuges are used in starch-gluten separation, concentration of
rubber latex, and cream separation
Bowl Centrifuge
 The Disc Stack Centrifuge

http://drugtopics.mediwire.com/main/Default.aspx?P=Content&ArticleID=172950

Large particles have higher settling velocities than small particles

Cellular debris ends up at the outer edge of the bowl
Soluble intracellular material passes through with the clarified liquid
Discs give a higher sigma factor
 Benefit of Discs

The discs split the stream into

a large number of very thin
layers thereby improving
separation

Solids flow downwards on

bottom face of disc

Liquid flows upwards on top

face of disc

Sigma factor  no. of discs

 Decanter Centrifuge
Rotating Bowl
Rotating scroll Clarified liquid

http://www.sgconsulting.co.za/Products/Decanters/Decanters.htm
Cyclones

102
The cyclone

104
 Uses
Wide variety of uses:
dust removal (principal application) in many industries
 cement industry
 sawmills
 catalyst particle recovery in reactors
mist (droplets) removed from air streams
recovery of spray-dried particles
separating immiscible liquids (different densities)
dewater suspensions: concentrate the product
remove dissolved gases from liquid stream
solids-solids separation: very common in mining

Where possible, consider a cyclone before a centrifuge for solid-fluid

separations.
105
Cyclone operation

[Brown and Associates, Unit Operations, p 119] 107

General path of travel in a cyclone

Generally, flow pattern is

more complex than this.

e Vortex and tangential

forces formed by the
fluid

low viscosity, low solids concentration

108
 Principle of operation

e Same principle as a centrifuge: density difference required

e No moving parts! and no consumable components!
e Low operating costs: essentially only pay for ∆P
e Operated at many temperatures and pressures
e As small as 1 to 2cm to 10m in diameter
e Very low capital costs: can be made from many materials
e Particle sizes 5µm and higher are effectively removed
e Even different particle shapes (due to different settling velocities)
can be separated
e Forces acting on particles: between 5 (large cyclones) and 2500 g
(small cyclones)

109
Theory
 Velocity profiles

e it is not gravity that removes the heavier particles in underflow

e it is the slower, boundary layer flow at the walls and air flow out
of the spigot
eparticles rotate at a radius where centrifugal force is balanced
by drag force
e larger, denser particles move selectively towards the wall
e residence time must be long enough to achieve equilibrium
orbits; spiral patterns help
e all of this comes down to a careful balance of radial and
tangential velocities
e velocities: these are our degrees of freedom to adjust the
cyclone’s performance

111
 Evaluating a cyclone’s performance

Mass balance: M = M f + Mc
e both overall balance
e and within each size fraction

112
 Efficiency
Total efficiency ET =
Mc
= 1−
Mf
M M

e 0% efficiency: all mass is being sent to overflow (fines) stream

e 100% efficiency: all mass to underflow (coarse) stream

Grade efficiency

(Mc)(fraction of size x in stream C, coarsestream)

G(x) =
(M)(fraction of size x in feed)

e calculated for a given particle size fraction x ; repeat at all x ’s

113
 Grade efficiency
Grade efficiency equation
(Mc)(fraction of size x in stream C, coarsestream)
G(x) = (M)(fraction of size x in feed)

e IfG (x ) = 0.5 (50%): implies half the material (by mass) in size fraction x is
leaving in the underflow (coarse)
e andthe other half in the overflow; 50-50 (mass) split in the two outlets for
particles of size x . Called the “cut size”, x50
e IfG (x ) = 1.0: implies the particle size that gets captured 100% in the
coarse (underflow) stream
e WhereG (x ) reaches 1.0 means the x = largest particle size
we expect to ever see in overflow

115
 Day-to-day operation
e most important factor: pressure drop = ∆P = difference
between inlet and overflow (fines) pressures and typically
we have ∆P ∼ 500 to 1500 Pa
e increase ∆P, increases efficiency, ET , and recovery into the
coarse stream
1
e ∆P ∝ ρf ∆P ∝ v in2 and voverflow
2 ∆P ∝
dunder
e vin = entry velocity and dunder = diameter of underflow
e efficiency drops off at high solids concentration: try to operate
as dilutely as possible if requiring high solids recovery
eleave the underflow opening diameter, dunder, as an physically
adjustable variable: it is hard to predict its size from theory
e air leaks at this point are disastrous for efficiency [Perry, Ch 17.2, 8ed]

117
Operational advantages and disadvantages
Advantages
e cost of operation: related to ∆P (i.e. electrical cost only)
e cheap capital cost to build cyclones
e small size
e mounted in any orientation (except for very large units)
e versatile: multiple uses

Balanced by some disadvantages:

e subject to abrasion
e cannot use a flocculated feed: high shear forces break flocs up
e limitson their efficiency curves
e requires consistent feed rate and concentration to maintain efficiency i.e. not
suitable for variable (volumetric) feeds
counteract: use many small cyclones in parallel; bring them online as needed

118
Selection of cyclones, sedimentation or centrifuges

119
 Circuits of separators
The remaining slides can be applied to any separation system, though most commonly
used for cyclones and other solid-fluid separations.

When one unit is not enough...

e we need a lower cut size

e need a sharper cut (slope of grade
efficiency curve at xcut)
e we need high concentrations
e use lower velocities to reduce
abrasion on equipment, but this will
change efficiency, so then ...

124
 Units in series: overflow
Grade efficiency curve for the entire sequence
e cut size becomes smaller with more units in series

e cut size sharpness (steepness of curve) increases

e but there are diminishing returns after 3 to 4 units

G (x → 0) = 10%: implies that 10% of the smallest size fractions are always
found in the coarse underflow: we cannot remove these fines

125
Recycle around a unit

e dilutes feed, which

improves efficiency
e decreases cut size
for increasing
recycle ratio: Q/q
e again diminishing
returns after a ratio
of 3 is exceeded

126
Units in series: underflow

e we get worse efficiency

e is this useful for
anything?

127
Recycle in the underflow

e Best of both worlds?

128