Breeding for Special Traits

Special traits (Quality traits)

“The suitability or fitness of
an economic plant product in
relation to its end use.”

A trait that defines some aspect of

produce quality is called quality
trait
Degree of excellence for a specific use or
 3

Each crop has a specific & often somewhat

to completely different set of quality traits.

“Breeding for special traits deals with

genetic improvement in some special
aspect e.g. protein, oil, vitamins, amino
acids and removal of anti-nutritional
substances.”
 4

Screening Methods for Different Quality Traits

TRAITS METHODS AUTHORS

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Oil (NMR) Nuclear Infrared Analyser -------
(NIR) Soxhlet method

Nuclear Infrared Analyser (NIR)

Protein -------
Micro-Kjeldahl method

Amino acid Colorimetric method -------

Iron Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer Jones et al. (1981)

Calcium Flame Photometric Jackson (1958)

Phosphorous Colorimetric method Jackson (1958)

Aflatoxin 1) Thin layer Chromatography -------

2) ELISA Kit
 5

Classification of Quality traits

•Morphological
• Organoleptic
•Nutritional
•Biological
• others
 6

Morphological Traits

related to produce appearance

mainly concerned with size & colour of the

produce,

eg.,grain/fruit size, grain/fruit colour etc.

Easily observable.

Usually play the main role in determining

consumer acceptance of the produce.
 7

Organolaptic traits

Concerned with palatability of the produce .

eg., taste,aroma, smale, juiciness,
softness,etc.

Easily detected

Very important in influencing consumer

preferences
 8

Nutritional Quality

Determine the value of the produce in human/

animal nutrition.

Includes protein content & quality, oil content &

quality, vitamin content, mineral content, etc.,
and also the presence of ant-nutritional factors.

Not easily appreciated by consumers & farmers,

but they are of paramount value in determining

human & animal health.
 9

Biological quality traits

The traits included in this group define the actual
usefulness of the produce when consumed by
experimental animals;

There usefulness to humans is usually predicted on

this basis. eg.,Protein efficiency ratio,biological
value, body weight gain,etc.

These traits are not obvious to consumers &

growers

but are extremely valuabe in detrmining the utility

of produce for human &/or animal consumption
 10

Other quality traits

Includes all other quality traits that are not

included in the above categories.
eg., cooking quality of rice, keeping quality of
fruits & vegetables, fibre strengh of cotton etc.

Many of the traits in this group are of prime

importance in determining the usfulness of the
concerned produce.
 11

Quality Traits of

Selected Crops
Wheat
white or amber grain colour, medium to bold size,
hard vitreous texture, & lustrous appearance are
important features for good market quality.
High lysine content & good baking quality are
essential for use in biscuit & bread manufacturing.
Rice
White coloured fine & long slender grains, taste &
fragrance, less breakage in milling, more hulling
recovery, better cooking quality, high protein &
lysine contents.
Maize
Bold flint grains with attractive colour, high lysine,
oil & sugar contents
The seed colour should be yellow or white.
Sorghum
Bold, thin pericarp, white grains of attractive shape
& size, high protein & lysine content
 13

Pearl millet
Bold lustrous & pearly amber colour grains with
high iron contents
Barley
In malting barley, low protein content & high extract
of soluble oligosaccharides after malting are desirable
characters.
Low protein produces less haze in beer & high
oligosaccharides are suitable for fermentation.
P.ulses
Attractive shape, size & colour of grains, high protein
contents; high methionine & tryptophan; & less
flatulence
Oil seeds
Attractive shape, size & colour of seeds, high oil
content free from antinutritional factors & more
proportion of unsaturated fatty acids
 14

Cotton
Fibre length, strength, fineness, maturity, uniformity

& colour

Tobacco
Short & thin leaves with less branched veins are
preferred for cigar.
Thin leaves are also preferred for pipe smoking.
Thick leaves are suitable for cigarettes.
High nicotin content for bidi, hookah & chewing &
low for cigarettes are preferred.
High sugar content is also preferred.

Sugarcane
Moderate hardness, long internode, optimum (low)
fibre for milling; sucrose ratio, high sucrose content
& good quality of juice.
 15

Potato
Attractive shape, size & colour of tubers, taste,
cooking quality, thin skin, keeping quality & high
starch content.

Vegetables

High vitamin & mineral contents, good taste,

keeping quality & cooking quality .

Forage crops
Greater nutritive value, more palatability & freedom
from toxic substances.
Medicinal plants

High content of active substance.

 16

Four major goals for breeding for

improved nutritional quality.
These are breeding for

(1)high content & quality of protein,

(2)high content & quality of oil,

(3)high vitamin contents, &

(4)low toxic substances which are harmful for

human health.
 17

NUTRITION & NUTRIENTS

The scientific study of food in relation to health is referred to as
nutrition.

Variouschemical components of food which provide

nourishment to the body are called nutrients.

These are carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals &

water.

Good nutrition refers to adequate intake of well balanced diet,

which supplies all essential nutrients required by the body.
Malnutrition may result from deficiency, excess or imbalance
of nutrients.
Hence all the nutrients should be taken in adequate quality.
 18

Protein content & Quality

Proteins are an essential component of the diet.

Protein are organic macromolecules consisting of a long chain of amino acids

linked with each other by peptide bonds formed by carboxyl(-COOH) group of
one amino acid with amino group(-NH2) of other amino acid

Thenutritional properties of proteins are determined by their amino acid

composition

There are 21 amino acids which are important in human nutrition.

These can be classified into two groups, viz. (1) essential amino acids & (2)
non essential amino acids.
 19

EAA can’t be synthesized in human body & their requirement has to be

met through dietary intake.

There are ten EAA (methionine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, threonine,

tryptophan, valine, phenylalanine, histidine, & arginine).

Outof these arginine & histidine are considered non essential for the
adult.

The non EAA can be synthesized in human body & they need not be
supplied through diet.

These are cystine, cysteine, proline, glycine, serine, alanine, aspartic acid,
hydoxyproline, glutamic acid, norleucine & tyrosine.

The quality of protein is determined by the content of essential amino

acids.

The sulphure containing amino acids (Tryptophan, Threonine, Isolecine,

Lysine, Valine & Methionine) are referred to as limiting amino acids.
 20

EAA deficient in some vegetarian foods:

Food Limiting amino acids

Cereals lysine, threonine, sometimes
tryptophan

Pulses Methionine, tryptophan

Nuts & oilseeds Lysine

Green leafy vegetable

Leaves & grasses Methionine

Singh,2002
 21

Vitamins
A vital substance which is required in very small quantity & is essential
for
proper growth & good health is called vitamin.

Vitamins are essential for body growth, maintenance & reproduction.

Based on their solubility, vitamins are of two types. Viz. (1) fat soluble
(A, D,
E & K) & (2) water soluble: (B group vitamins & vitamin C).

Vitamin D & folic acid can be partly synthesized in the body.

Rest of the vitamins has to be supplied through diet.

Vitamin D is found in fats

other vitamins are found in fleshy fruits & green vegetables.

 22

NUTRITIONAL QUALITY OF CEREALS &

PULSES
Cereals are important sources of carbohydrates.

The contribution of cereals is 70% to the total calories in human diet.

They contribute 50% to the global protein requirement,

while grain legumes contribute only 20 %.

Remaining 30% comes from animal products.

The average protein content in the cereals ranges from 10 to 13%.

However, the cereal protein is deficient in lysine, tryptophan & threonine.

 23

Cereal Protein Quality

In cereals, four types of protein, viz.
1.Albumins (water soluble)
2.Globulins (soluble in saline solutions)
3.Prolamins (soluble in strong alcohol)
4.Glutamine (soluble in dilute alkaline solutions)

Cereals contains about 70% Prolamins + Glutamine and 30% Albumins +

Globulins.

Major protein fraction of cereal proteins

Protein fraction Soluble in Amino acid profile Remarks
Albumins Water Saline Balanced Balanced -
Globulins Strong Alcohol Deficient in Lys,Tsp; rich -
Prolamines in Pro, Gln Major fraction in
wheat, barley, maize
& sorghum
Glutelins Dilute alkali Balanced -

Singh,2002
 24

In all cereals, Prolamines are relatively rich in proline &

glutamine but low in basic amino acids including lysine.
Therefore, they have poor nutritional value.

Generally, prolamin content in cereals is negatively

associated with total protein content.

Cereals contain about 70% prolamine & glutelin and 30%

albumin & globulin.

Several mutants with improved protein quality have been

identified in cereals like maize, jowar & barley (Table 2).
 25

Table 2:The list of mutants affecting protein quality in

cereals.
Crop Mutant Origin Features Remarks
Maize Opaque-2 Spontaneous High Lys,Trp High Reduced prolamine
Opaque-7 Lys,Trp Reduced prolamine
Floury-2 High Lys & S-amino acids Reduced prolamine

High Lys,Trp Modified starch, reduced prolamine

Brittle-2

Barley Hiproly(lys) Spontaneous High protein, Lys Also Several minor genes

Notch-1 EMS High protein, Lys Reduced prolamine

Notch-2
Riso 1508 EI High lysine Reduced prolamine; qualitative change in
proteins
Sorghum IS 11167 (hl) Spontaneous High Lysine Shrivelled endosperm, reduced prolamine

IS 11758(hl)

P-721 DES High Lysine Reduced prolamine; monogenic; modifying

opaque genes make the endosperm vitreous

P-721 Reduced prolamine

vitreous

Source: Pirman et al.,1997

Barley
 The High protein and high lysine traits in barley
mutants is governed by single recessive gene.
The Hiproly is spontaneous mutant line while Notch-
1, Notch-2 (Ethylmethane sulphonate) and Riso
1508(Ethylene imine) are nullisomic Induced mutant
lines.
High protein and lysine lines Hiproly (use as a non-
recurrent parent) derived from a backcross
programme with ‘Mona’ variety (use as a recurrent
parent) of barley.
 In India, Agronomically superior strains and
backcrossing had combined with sib-mating.
The varieties Karan 15, Karan 92 and Karan 280 are
good for malting quality.
Sorghum
The IS-11167, IS-11758 is spontaneous and P-721
opaque and P-721 vitreose are Induced (Diethyl
sulphate) high lysine mutants lines in sorghum.
The P-721 opaque trait is governed by a single
partialy dominant gene.
But the P-721 opaque endosperm is disliked by
farmers and consumers.
Maize
The traits Opaque-2, Opaque-7, Floury-2 and Brittle-
2 are high lysine and tryptophan spontaneous mutants
line in maize.
Protiena, Shakti and Ratna verities have been

developed through the use of opaque-2 mutant.

 28

Legume Protein Improvement

Legumes contain protein from 18 to 28% which is almost double of
cereals (exception,soybean:43%).

In pulses, two types of proteins, viz. albumin & globulin are found.

The major storage protein in grain legumes is globulin which constitutes

about 80% of the total seed protein.

In chickpea, globulin is of three types, viz. alpha, beta & gamma.

The alpha globulin accounts for more than 80% of the total protein.

In faba & pea, globulin is of two types, viz. legumin & vicilin.

Legumin is less soluble in salt solution than vicilin.

Moreover, legumin does not coagulate at high temperature (950C) while

vicilin coagulates.
 29

Proteins legumes are deficient in methionine & tryptophan.

Moreover, they contain several toxic substances such as protease

inhibitors, haemagglutinins, lathyrogens, glucocides, goitrogens,
cyanogens, metal binding factors & antivitamin factors.

However, many of these toxic compounds are destroyed during

cooking.

Some of these toxins have to be eliminated through breeding.

The mixture of cereals & pulses in 3 : 1 ratio provides nutritionally

balanced diet.

In Pulse, two types of protein, viz.

1.Albumins (water soluble)
2.Globulins (soluble in saline solutions)

Pulses contains about 20% Albumins and 80% Globulins.

High methionine and tryptophan
 30

Table 3 :Protein fractions present in

legume seeds
Protein fraction Soluble in Amino acid balance Remarks
Albumin Water Balanced Minor fractions(20% or less)

Globulin Saline Deficient in S- Predominant fraction(~80%)

containing AA
In chickpea
α-Globuline - Deficient in S- 80% total globulins
containing AA
β- and γ- Globulins - Balanced Relatively minor fraction

In pea, faba & French bean

Legumin Less salt About balanced More predominant than in

soluble, vicilin in faba bean
noncoagulat
e
Vicilin More salt Deficient in S- Almost the only globulin in
soluble, containing AA french bean
coagulates
@ 950C
Pirman et al.,1997
 31

GENETICS OF NUTRITIONAL TRAITS

The quality traits may be

governed by
(1)Oligogenic Inheritance,
(2)Polygenic Inheritance, &
(3)Maternal Effects
 Oligogenic inheritance 32

Inheritance is governed by one or few major genes

Each gene has large & easily detectable effect on the
expression of nutritional quality character.
The differences between characters of high & low
value is clear cut.

In Sorghum, high lysine content is controlled by

single gene with incomplete dominanace.
In barley, high lysine content is governed by one
major gene plus several minor genes.
In safflower, fatty acid composition is governed by
one major gene with three major alleles.
In tomato, high beta carotene content is conditioned
by two major genes plus modifires.
 33

Polygenic inheritance
Inheritance is governed by several genes each with
small additive effect
In such inheritance, the variation for a character is
continuous from one extreme to another.
Classification of plants into clear cut classes is not
possible.

The protein content in cereals & pulses & seed oil

content in oilseed crops aregoverned by polygenes.

Characters which are governed by polygenes are

sensitive to environmentalchanges & generally have
low heritability.

In carrot, high carotenoid content exhibits complex

inheritance pattern.
 34

Maternal Effects:
 Important/present in case of some quality traits.
Usually, such traits are concerned with grain
characteristics, eg.,seed size (quite common), protein
content,etc.
For ex.protein content in chickpea, fatty acid
composition in maize, soybean & rapeseed is
influenced by genotype of maternalparent.

Maternal effects have same effect on genetic advance

under selection as other environmental factors, i.e.,
they confuse correspondence between genotype &
phenotype &, thereby, reduce the progress under
selection.

Selection schemes must make allowances for maternal

effects if & where present.
 35

Table 4: Genetics of nutritional quality

characters in some crop plants
Crop species Quality character Inheritance controlled by Single partially
Sorghum High lysine dominant gene
Barley High lysine One major gene & several minor genes

Oats Protein content Complex, low content is dominant over high

Maize, Seed oil content Additive genes

Sunflower,
Safflower
Sesame Seed oil content Additive genes with partial dominance for
low oil content
Rape seed Erucic acid & eicosenoic Two genes with multiple alleles
acid
Turnip rape Erucic acid & eicosenoic Single genes with multiple alleles
acid
Safflower Fatty acid composition Three major alleles at one locus
Tomato High beta carotein content Two major genes plus modifiers
Carrot Carotenoid content The inheritance is complex

Gupta,1992
 36

SOURCES OF QUALITY TRAITS:

( 1) a cultivated variety,

(2) a germplasm line,

(3) a spontaneous or induced mutant,

(4) a somaclonal variant,

(5) a wild relative and

(6) a transgene
 37

1) A cultivated Variety
For wheat most preferred source eg. Atlas 66 (USA)
& Naphal (INDIA) have been used as sources of
high Lysine and protein content

2) A Germplasm Line
eg. High lysine (3% of total protein) lines of
sorghum, viz., IS 11167 & IS 11758,were identified
from Ethiopian collections.

These lines also have (15%) protein but their seeds

are shrivelled & red in colour.

They have been extensively used in breeding

programmes.
 38

3) A mutant
many quality traits have been contributed by
spontaneous/induced mutants (Table 2).

There are also examples of isolation of desirable

mutants from mutant lines for quality traits.

eg. P-721 opaque mutant of sorghum has opaque

endosperm, which is not liked by consumers.

A vitreous endosperm DES-induced mutant was

isolated from P-271 opaque line; this mutant has
high lysine content.
 39

4) A Somaclonal Variant
 Somaclonal variants may sometimes show an improvement in
a quality trait.
eg., a somaclonal variant of sweet potato had deeper & more
stable root colour, which is preferred by consumers; this variant
was released as a new variety called ‘ Scarlet’
5) A wild Relative There are several instances where genes for
improved quality were contributed by a wild relative (Table 5)
In many cases, the quality trait is not expressed as such in the
wild species, but it is detected only in the segregants recovered
from its cross with the cultivated relative; such traits are called
latent traits.
eg., L. hirsutum, a wild relative of tomato, produces small green
fruits.Yet some of the lines extracted from a cross between
tomato & L. hirsutum showed enhanced red colour, while
some others showed considerably higher carotene content.
 40

Table 5: Wild relatives from which quality traits have

been/can be transferred.(Chopra ,1989)
Crop Wild relative Quality trait
Cotton G. thurberi Fibre strength(latent trait)
G. armourianum Fibre strength(latent trait)

G. anomalum Fibre fineness, strength & maturity

G.raimondii Fibre strength & fineness

G. tomentosum Fibre strength & fineness

Tomato L. hirsutum Fruit colour, carotene content (latent trait)

L. pimpinellifolium Vitamin C content

L. peruvianum Vitamin C content

Pigeonpea Atylosia spp. High protein content

Soybean Glysine soja High protein (has 45% protein), reduced
lipoxygenase activity
Oats Avena sterillis High protein (27% protein)
 41

6) A Transgene
Agene from any organism, including the species into which it is
transferred, that is introduced into the genome of an organism using
the techniques of genetic engineering is called transgene.

 Transgenes provide a powerful means for modification of quality traits.

In order to use transgenes effectively & successfully, biosynthetic

pathway, or atleast key enzymes involved in biosynthesis, leading to
production of concerned trait should be known.

eg., ‘Laurical’ ( B. napus variety having high lauric acid) & B. napus
variety producing ‘hirudin’ (anti-thrombin protein of high pharmaceutical
value)

Production of hirudin & similar other novel proteins/ biochemicals in

plants may be regarded as a novel quality trait, which drastically
changes the end use pattern of crop produce.
 42

BREEDING APPROACHES:

►1)Evaluation of germplasm.

►2)Mutagenesis.

►3)Hybridization.

►4)Interspecific hybridization.

►5)Somaclonal variation.

►6)Genetic engineering
 43

1) Screening of Germplasm
 important for such traits that are not obvious, viz.,traits
related to chemical composition.
 eg.,The lysine germplasm lines of sorghum

Further breeding effort will be required to combine the quality

trait with good agronomic features &/or yield since the
germplasm line is expected to be inferior in yield & agronomic
characteristics.

2) mutagenesis
 A desired quality trait may be present in spontaneous /
induced mutant (Table 2).
 44

Varieties release for quality through mutation breeding

Crop Origin Mutant Features
Rice
IIT-48 India Thylene cocideo3% Fine grain bitter test weight compared with IR 8
P-721 vitreous DES High lysine
X-rays, 30 kr direct selection Medium slender grain good cooking quality
in M2 (T.141)
Jagannath USSR Mutant 428 zolotistyi HU Cooking quality
2005 Cooking quality

Daisenminori Torikei 4 x Good Cooking quality

satominori Good Cooking quality
Miyukimochi- gamma rays
Wheat Glutinous endosperm

Dry seeds (12%) 60 CO gamma

Sharbati India rays (Sonora 64) Amber grain colour, higher protein and lysine
sonora Seeds gamma irradiation content
Pusa Lerma (Lerma Rojo 64) Amber grain colour , elasticity and polshenke
Thermal neutrons (Mo W value
Stadler USA 6243) Strong straw, excellent soft quality and
Air dry seeds 5Kr 60 CO winter hardiness
Novosibirskaira USSR gamma rays (Novosibirskaira Baking quality
67 7)
 45

Contd……….

Crop Origin Mutant Features

Barley

Spontaneous Hiproly (lys) Notch -1 High protein, lys

Notch -2 High protein, lys
EMS
Riso 1508 High protein, lys
Canor – Trunpf x Nordal High lysine
EI 1976
Good malting quality
Dry seeds. 9400 rad x-rays
Vienna Austria Thermal neutrons High 1000 kernel weight
Pennrad USA 5 KR X-rays Increased winter hardiness
Jutta Germany Presoaked seeds, Y 350 rad Increased winter hardiness
Pallas Sweden x-rays Stiff strane
Dry seeds, 20 Krad x-rays
Mari Sweden Stiff straw

Kristina Sweden Selection from Domen X Good straw

Mari
Bonneville USA Seeds, 15 Krad gamma-rays Improved threshability
70

Source:Vijaykumar ,2002
 46
Contd……
Crop Origin Mutant Features
Pigean pea
Vishakha-1 BARC Fast neutrons(T-21) 35% increased in seed
size
Co-3 Coimbatore 0.6% EMS (CO-1) Bold seeded, higher
degree of shelling
TAT-5 PKV Akola & BARC 1.5 Krad fast neutrons (T-21) Approximately 50 % larger
seed size
TAT-10 PKV Akola & BARC Cross of mutant TT-2 (large seeded compact) Medium large grains
x TT-8 (early) both induced by 2.5 Krad fast
neutrons (T-21)

Blackgram
TAU-1 PKV, Akola Cross: T-9 x 4-196 Larger seed size
(mutant induced by
gamma-rays) (No.55)
Chickpea High protein
NIFA-95
Cowpea TNAU CO5-Gamma rays Nutritional value

Linseed
Linola 989 India Mutant Oil quality
Sunflower
Prevenets India Chemical Oil content
 47
Contd……

Crop Origin Mutant Features

Groundnut
Somnath Gujrat Mutant Seed size & oil content
Vikram BARC γ-rays Seed size
BP-1 BARC γ-rays Seed size
BP-2 BARC γ-rays Seed size
Sesame
Sinai Egypt γ-rays Seed colour
White 48
Suvon 155 Korea γ-rays Oil quality
Yangbaek Korea SA Higher oil content
Seodum Korea SA Somewhat higher oleic acid

Source:Vijaykumar ,2002
 48

3) Hybridization
 Most widely used breeding approach to develop high yielding varieties with
desirable quality traits.

The breeding methods used to handle segregating generations derived from

appropriate crosses depend mainly on the type of parents involved in the cross.

If both parents of a cross are high yielding varieties having good agronomic
features, pedigree method will be the most suitable .

If one of the parents has inferior agronomic features, backcross scheme will be the
most appropriate; only a limited number (2-3) of backcross may be made, if the
inferior parent has some desirable features as well (in addition to the quality trait).

The segregating generation may be subjected to sib-mating, in place of selfing, &

selection in an effort to break undesirable linkages with the gene controlling quality

traits.
These considerations apply when quality trait is governed by oligogenes (Table 6 ).
 49

Quality traits governed by polygenes may be improved by subjecting the

segregating generations to a form of recurrent selection
Recurrent selection for two cycles increased seed protein content of rajma
(french bean) from 21.9% to 24.6%.

Incase of soybean, there was an increase of 3.3% (from 42.8 to 46.1 per cent) in
seed protein content in response to 5 cycles of recurrent selection.

Table 6 :Selected examples of breeding for improved protein/lysine

content
Crop Breeding method Improvement Remarks

French Recurrent selection Protein content 2.7% increase in two cycles

bean(rajma)
Recurrent selection Protein content 3.3% increase in five cycles
Soybean

Sorghum Pedigree method Lysine content -

Barley Backcross method Lysine content -

Sorghum Mutagenesis High lysine Diethyl sulphonate

Barley Mutagenesis High lysine EMS & ethylene imine

Singh, 2002
 50

4) Interspecific Hybridization
 When individual from two distinct species of the same genus are crossed.

 Wild relative often contribute useful quality genes, eg.,fruit colour, fruit size, pro-
vitamin A & vitamin C content in tomato etc.(Table 5)

In any case, the high quality lines derived from such crosses will usually serve as
parents in hybridization programmes; it is unlikely that they will be used directly
as varieties.

5) Somaclonal Variation
Genetic variation present in tissue culture-raised plants (somaclonal variation)
has been exploited for crop improvement & several somaclonal variants are
being used as commercial varieties.

 eg., ‘Scarlet’ variety of sweet potato has improved & more stable root colour.
 51

BREEDING METHODS
Breedingmethods used for improvement of quality do not differ from breeding
methods used for any other character.

Breeding methods that are extensively used for improvement of quality traits
include backcross, pedigree method, single seed descent, recurrent
selection, progeny selection & mutation breeding.

In common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), pedigree, single seed descent &
recurrent selection methods have been used for improvement of protein
content.

Two cycles of recurrent selection increased seed protein from 21.9% to 24.6%.

Insoybean, five cycles of recurrent selection increased seed protein from 42.8
to 46.1 per cent.

In Sorghum, pedigree breeding procedure was used for developing high lysine
lines.
 52

In barley, backcross method was used for development of high lysine
lines. In
barley, high lysine line had small seed size & low grain yield.

In sunflower, seed oil content was increased from 30% to almost 50% by
Russian breeders in 50 years using modified recurrent selection.

In safflower, oil content was increased from 37% to 50% through reduction
in hull content.

In maize, seed oil content increased from 4.7 to 17% & protein from 10.9
to
23.5 after 70 cycles of recurrent selection in USA. But there was a drastic
reduction in grain yield.

Mutation breeding has been used for development of high lysine lines in
Sorghum, barley & maize.

Di-ethyl-sulphonate (DES) has been used in Sorghum & EMS & EI in

barley for
induction of high lysine mutants.
 53

SCREENING TECHNIQUES
Breeding for enhanced nutritional quality involves lot of chemical analysis.

The breeding material has to be screened for protein content, amino acid
composition, seed oil content, fatty acid composition, vitamin contents &
antinutritional factors.

This requires close cooperation of biochemist.

The selection of plants with better nutritional quality is done based on chemical
analysis should be simple, cheap & rapid.

Now rapid chemical analysis methods are available for protein estimation, seed
oil estimation, fatty acids & amino acid analysis.
 54

Seed Oil Analysis

Theseed oil analysis is done with the help of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
(NMR) or Nuclear Infrared Analyser (NIR).

 This
is the non destructive method of oil analysis. After oil analysis the seeds
can be used for sowing purpose.

Several single plants in segregating populations can be analyzed.

Thismethod is quite simple, highly accurate & very fast. By this method, 300-
400 samples can be easily analyzed per day.
 55

Protein Analysis
Now analysis of grain protein is done with the help of protein analyser.

The analysis is based on the principle of infra-red reflectance measurement.

The seed is grouped into flour which is used for the analysis.

This method is very fast. By this method 200-300 samples can be easily
analysed per day.

Individualamino acids can be estimated by colorimetric method or

microbiological method.

Analysis of antinutritional factors is carried out by chemical method.

The old methods of protein estimation (Kjeldahl method) & oil analysis (Soxhlet
method) were very much time consuming though more accurate.

 Now fast methods have been developed.

 56

BREEDING FOR LOW TOXIC SUBSTANCES

Insome grain legumes, oilseeds. Vegetables, fruits & forage crops toxic
substances are found.

These toxic substances have adverse effects on human & animal health.

Feeding of forage with toxic substance will adversely effect the health of
animal.

Therefore, it is essential to develop varieties of forage & food crops with low
level of toxic substance so that it should not have adverse effect when
consumed by animals.

Considerable progress has been made in the development of varieties with

low toxin content in above crops.

 Breeding for reduction in toxic substances requires lot of chemical analysis.

Hence development of simple, cheap, rapid & reliable methods of chemical

analysis is essential.
 57

Antinutritional factors in legumes

Antinutritional Action in human body Source Methods to
factor overcome
Type A
1. Protease Interferes in human Chickpea, pigeonpea , By heat
inhibitors digestive process and limabean , kidney bean, treatments,
nutrients utilization peanuts, cowpea, garden pea germination,
fermentation
Lentil, peas, soybean, kidney
2. Lectins or Agglutinates red blood beans, peanuts Traditional
hemaggluttins cells and other types of cooking,
cells, toxic to human when germination
exceeds the limits
3. Saponins Bitter taste, hemolyze red Alfalfa , soybean, french --
blood cells bean, pisum
Type B
1. Phytic acid Makes mineral insoluble Soybean , fababean, lentil, Germination,
by binding strongly with chickpea and phaseolus applying phytase
them particularly with Ca, beans enzyme
Fe, Mg, Zn and other trace
elements
2. Gossypols Binds with Fe and amino Cotton seed meal CaOH addition
acids reduces gossypol
3.Glucosinolates Causes legume goitre in Brasica, soybean, peanuts
childrens, due to iodine
deficiency
 Contd……..

Antinutritional factor Action in human body Source Methods to overcome

Type C

1. Antivitamins Decomposes vitamins Green beans, green --

and many combine with peas, kidney beans,
them to form common beans ,
unabsorable complexes soybean, pea sprouts

2.lathrogens Neuro -paralysis of Lathyrus sp. Cooking in excess water and draining off the
lower limbs excess water overnight cooking cold water.
Steeping the dehusked seeds is hot water.
Roasting seeds at 150 o C for 20 minutes.

3. Favic agents Favism , hemolytic Faba beans Drying the bean, cooking
anamia and
hemoglobinurea
4. Estrogenic factors Induces the growth of soybean germination
feminine parts

5. Toxic amino acids Kidney mal function Djenkol bean --

6. Antienzymes Inhibits amylose Navy bean and its --

relatives
7. Flatulence factors Resists digestion soybean

8.cynogens Human poisoning, Lima bean Cooking and discarding cooking cooking
mental confusion, water
muscle paresis and
respiratory distress
58
Source:Manickam,2002
 59

TABLE 7 . Toxic substances found in different

food & fodder crops
Crops species Toxic substance

Food crops
Crops species Toxic substance
Khesari Lathyrogen or nurotoxin
Pigeon pea Tripsin inhibitors Fodder Crop
Cowpea
French bean Haemagglutinine Sorghum Tannins & cyanogenic

Tripsin & amylase inhibitors Glucocides

Soybean Tripsine inhibitor & goitrogens Sudan grass Cynogenic glucocides
Rapeseed & Erucic acid
White clover Cynogenic glucocides
Mustard Eicosenoic acid Gossypol
Cotton seed Polyphenolics Steroidal Alfalfa Saponins & plant
Safflower alkaloids estrogenes
Potato Cucurbitacines Bitter Sweet clover Coumarin
Cucurbits principle CN glucocides
Lespedeza Tannins
Brinjal Alkaloids Resigns
Cassava Anti vitamin E factor
Yarn
Mango
Field pea
Singh,2002
 60

PRACTICAL ACHIEVEMENTS
Varietieswith improved nutritional quality have been developed in several food
crops in many countries.

Incommon bean, seed protein has been increased from 21.9 to 24.6, & in
soybean seed from 42.8 to 46.1%.

In
sunflower, seed oil content has been increased from 32% to almost 50% in
USSR, & in safflower from 37 to 50%.

Inmaize, seed oil content has been increased from 4.7 to 17% & protein
content from 10.9 to 23.5%.

Inwheat, Atlas-66 is an important source of high protein which is being used in

breeding programmes for improvement of protein content.
 61

Varieties with improved quality released in

some crop plants in India

Crop species Quality character Varieties released

Maize High lysine content Protina, Shakti & Rattan

Sugarcane High sucrose content Co 671, Co 6806, Co 7314,Co 7704 & Co 62174

Barley Malting quality Karan 15, Karan 92 & Karan 280

Lathyrus Low neurotoxin Pusa 24

Soybean High protein & Lee (Protein 43-45% & oil 23-25%)
high oil content High
Rapeseed oil content K 88 (48.8% oil)

Singh,2002
Breeding for
Oil Content in
G’nut
Important Quality Traits
• A) Morphological and Physical Quality Characters

• B) Organolaptic Quality Parameters

• C) Biological Quality Parameters

• D) Other Quality Parameters

• E) Biochemical Quality Parameters

• F) Undesirable Quality Parameters

A) Morphological and Physical Quality Characters

• Following traits are related to external appearance of the seed. These traits are easily
observable and usually play the main role in determining consumer acceptance of the
produce.
•Seed shape
•Uniformity in seed mass
•Integrity of testa
•Absences of extraneous materials and immature seeds
•Integrity of seed during processing and Blanching
•Moisture content
• Seed colour ( Variegated and non variegated)
• Seed size ( Ranges - length- 7 to 21 mm , diameter- 5 to 13 mm )
• Seed texture
• Seed surface
• Seed weight ( ranges 0.17 to 1.24g, larger and heavier var. hypogaea > var.
fastigata) ( Varisai,1973)
 Quality Attributes of Confectionary
Groundnut For Export Purpose
Traits Desirable aspects
Seed size 155 to 170 seed /100g

Seed shape Round or elongated with tapering ends

Colour Pods : Light golden-yellow and

Kernels : Tan rose and red testa of kernels are preferred.
Flavour (Roasted) Almond ,coffee, nutty popcorn, smoky and sweet

Texture Firm and crispy

( Roasted)
Biochemical and Low oil content, high protein content, high O/L ratio, high
Nutritional vitamins B1,B2,E, high in minerals like Ca, Mg, Fe: low in anti
nutritional compounds like oxalic and phytic acid

Aflatoxins Free from aflatoxins

Source- Groundnut Research in India, DGR

 B) Organolaptic Quality Parameters
Following traits are related to palatability of the
produce. They are easily detected and are very
important in consumer preferences.
Aroma - roasted peanutty, raw beany, dark roast peanut, woody/
hulls/skins, cardboard, painty, other(brunt, green, earthy, fishy, rainy
chemical/ plastic, sweet fruity/fermented)
Flavour and Seed taste – sweet ,sour, bitter, salty
Softness.
Feeling factors – astringent, metallic

Note: Screening of Organolaptic traits is carried

out with the help of taste panel of 7 to 8 expert
members. Source- Sanders (1995)
 C) Biological Quality Parameters

The traits included in this group define the actual usefulness of the
produce, when consumed by the experimental units
These includes
•Protein efficiency ratio
•Biological value
•Body weight gain
•Digestibility
D) Other Quality Parameters
These included prime importance in determining the usefulnessof the
concerned produce.
This includes
•Cooking quality
•Milling quality
•Cooking time
•Keeping quality
 E) Biochemical Quality Parameters
 Oil Protein Vitamins Minerals
 Carbohydrates
 High in antioxidants ( Tocopherols)


F) Undesirable Quality Parameters

 Aflatoxins
 Goiterogens
 Saponins
 Allergens
 Phytates
 Oxalates
 Oligosaccharides
 Hydrogen cyanide(HCN)
 THE GENETICS OF IMPORTANT QUALITY TRAITS IN
GROUNDNUT
Trait Type of gene action Large pod Reference
Pod size dominant to small pod size Controlled by three Balaiah et al., 1977
genes Badami, 1928
Pod Deep pod reticulation dominant to Jadhav and Sinde,
reticulations shallow reticulations, single gene 1979
Pod beak Non-beaked pod dominant to Balaiah et.
beaked, single gene al., 1977
Pod beak was dominant over the beakless Patel et. al., 1997
Black pod Single dominant gene Branch et. al., 1997
Seed number Fewer than three seeds/ pod-one dominant Balaiah et. al., 1977
three or more seeds/pod (monogenic)
Seed shape Long seed shape dominant to short, two Hayes, 1933
genes
Shrivelled Single recessive gene Jakkula et. al., 1997
seed
Testa colour Duplicate recessive loci model for red testa colour Branch 1995

Seed size Large seed is dominant to small Hassan 1964; Balaiah

seed size et. al., 1977

Controlled by five pairs of genes, four Martin 1967

having iso-directional effect
cont…
Trait Type of gene action Reference
Oil content Low oil content dominant to high oil Shany 1977

Two recessive genes (Ol1 and Ol2) Moore and Knauft

control high oleic acid character 1989
Protein content High protein content dominant to low Shany 1977
protein
Albinism Two duplicate loci interacting with a Upadhyaya and Gopal
third locus in an epistatic manner 1995

Sound mature kernels Additive and non-additive gene action Vindhiyavarman and
Raveendran, 1994
Shelling outturn Additive and non-additive gene action Vindhiyavarman and
Raveendran, 1994
Sound mature kernels Additive and non-additive gene action Vindhiyavarman and
Raveendran, 1994

Soluble sugar Additive gene effects Basu et al., 1988

100-seed weight Additive gene action Manoharan and

Ramalingam, 1993
 Aflatoxin in Groundnut
 Mainly 3 mycotoxins are found in groundnut
 Aflatoxin  Aspergillus spp
 Ochratoxin  Penicillium spp
 T-2 toxin  Fusarium spp
 Deteriorate quality
 Aflatoxins are produced by toxigenic strains of
Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus fungi in
various foods and feeds.
 Aflatoxin contamination is due to certain problems at pre
and post harvest levels.
 List of some groundnut varieties with
desirable quality traits
Name of Year of Pedigree Salient feature
variety release
TMV 10 1970 Natural mutant of Argentina High oil content
Mutant 28- 2003 EMS (0.5%) of VL 1 Large seed, resistance to
2 late leaf spot
TPG 41 2003 TG-28A x TG-22 Medium maturity, large
seed, high oleic acid
BG 2 1979 X-ray mutant of 41-C Large seed, semi-erect
Dh 40 1994 Dh 3-30 x TGE 2 Early maturity, large seed
MH 4 1990 Selection from MH 2 High yield, Large seed
J 11 1964 Ah 4218 x Ah 4354 Aflatoxin resistant
GG4 1993 CGC 3 x Chico 50.8 % oil content
GG5 1996 27-5-1 x JL24 Bold seeded
GG 14 2001 GG11 x R33-1 High oil content (52.0%)
GG21 2004 Somnath x NCAc 2232 Bold seeded , High oil
content (53.0%)
TAG 24 1992 TGS 2 x TGE 1 Large seed, high HI
Source- DGR,2004
 73

Most
Limitations
are polygenic

Difficult to estimate & evaluate, hence more finance required

Low heritability & affected by environment

There is negative association of seed protein with grain yield in both

cereals & pulses.

In some cases, improvement in quality leads to reduction in grain

size and yield.
For example, in barley selection for high lysine content causes reduction in
grain size and grain yield.

Sometimes, the quality character is found in wild relatives or species

Theanalysis requires close cooperation of biochemist which

sometimes becomes limiting factor in the progress.

Biotechnological tools have not been used widely in all crops.