Socio Economic Aspects

UNIT – II
SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS
• Economics of housing.
• Social economic factors influencing housing affordability.
H
• Formal and informal sector. O
• Equity in housing development. U
• Sites and services. S
• Slum housing, up gradation and redevelopment. I
• Low Cost Housing.
N
• Health principles in housing.
G
• Legislation for housing development.
• Cost-effective materials and technologies for housing.
• Case studies in India and developing countries.
UNIT –II SOCIO- ECONOMIC ASPECTS

Economics of housing.
• As the social agenda, the economics of urban housing is equally

important and mutually reinforcing.
H
• Urban housing due to value addition and monetisation of land has
O
immense potential to absorb investments and perform decisive
U
role to stimulate Indian economy, which is striving to move
S
towards a six trillion dollar GDP and the largest size of middle
I
income group in the world during next ten years.
N
• Despite a temporary slowdown in the economic growth, latest
G
trends (as observed in August 2017) suggest early signs of
economic revival.

• Demonetisation and GST (Goods and Service Tax) have provided additional
liquidity and scope for cash flow-based lending to 8.9 million firms in the
. formal market.
• Further, biometric identity under Aadhaar and mobile connectivity have H
increased number of potential borrowers of housing finance in the O
economy. U
• The economy is stressed to have employment elasticity of income and S
productivity and housing can facilitate jobs and income to a cross section of
I
low income households.
N
G

• Overall employment generation on investment in housing (as part of
construction sector) is eight times the direct employment (IIM,
Ahmedabad, 2000). H
• It is also noted that residential (housing) sector has 6.8 per cent share in O
the total employment (NCAER, 2014). U
• Further, housing sector caters to the needs of the poor providing 99 per S
cent jobs in the informal sector.
I
• At the same time as per the RBI data, the growing middle class also plays a
N
positive role and seeks 94 per cent of housing loans along with their
household savings.
G
• Further, investment in housing also provides indirect taxes to the tune of
12 per cent.

When more houses are constructed, it brings considerable income through
•Stamp duty and registration charges
•Building license fees
•Property taxes H
•Building tax O
•Sales tax on material purchases
U
S
I
N
G

Social economic factors influencing housing affordability
H
O
U
S
I
N
G

H
O
U
S
I
N
It is evident from the above table that one in every three Indians is
under the age of 15, and only one in three is older than 35. G
When comparing with other countries such as China, USA and Japan,
India have the unique advantage of the higher level of middle
aged and lower level of aged people.

Indian GDP has
grown at 6% for the
past 10 years and 8%
for the last 3 years
and interestingly service
sector accounts for 60% H
of GDP (Parekh, D,
2006).
O
U
It could be seen from
the above table that in S
spite of the merits
highlighted in the I
preceding
paragraphs, house
N
mortgage as a G
Amongst the Asian countries, Hong Kong percentage of GDP,
is the topper, followed by Taiwan, India stands the lowest.
Malaysia, Thailand and Korea.

It could be inferred from the
above exhibit that the
consumption pattern in
amongst Indian population is
expected to change as
indicated above by 2013.
H
O
The strivers are less but
aspirers and rich are U
significant higher comparing to
the 2003 status. S
The housing finance sector in
I
India has undergone N
unprecedented change over the
past two decades. G

Government's Initiative
• Budget 2016-17 has proposed that service tax will not be charged
on the construction of affordable houses up to 60 sq mt. H
• Moreover, agencies such as the Confederation of Real Estate Developers'
O
Associations of India are making diligent efforts to promote affordable
U
housing in the country.
• This private body of real estate developers is focusing on launching
S
affordable projects on a large scale in the country. I
N
G

Growing Urban Population
• There has been a substantial rise in India's urban population, that

is, there has been a steady increase in the number of people living in
cities and towns.
H
• With more people relocating to urban areas, the demand for
O
affordable housing in cities has also risen. U
S
I
N
G

Home Ownership and Rising Income Levels
• With progressive urbanisation, India is also experiencing a growing
culture of home ownership, wherein people not only from the urban class
but also from the lower income groups are aiming to have their own H
dream home. O
Land Availability at Reasonable Costs U
• Easier land availability, that too, at low cost, particularly in suburban
S
localities further bolsters the progress of affordable housing
I
development.
N
Financial & Regulatory Support G
• It has been observed that the microfinance institutions, unlike the
commercial banks, are proactively financing the development activities in
the EWS and LIG category.

Concept of Affordability
Affordability is generally viewed as a ratio of price/rent of housing

to income of household. The ratio differs for different income groups.
Lower income groups can afford to pay much less proportion of their income
for housing than that of higher income groups.
H
O
Deepak Parekh Committee report defines the affordability ratio for different
income groups as follows:- U
S
I
N
G

 We would like to separate out the EWS and LIG since in most Government
and Institutional programs these are taken as separate categories.
H
 While keeping the affordability ratio for LIG and MIG as given by the
Parekh Committee, the ratio for EWS is lowered to not more than
O
20 per cent for EMI/rent and 3 times household’s gross annual U
income for cost of house. S
 There is another category of urban poor which is also (or ought to be) part I
of government’s inclusive policy of providing Affordable Housing for all N
namely BPL (Below Poverty Line).
G
 This category needs to be considered separately and not as part of EWS.
The affordability level of households in this category would be
not more than 5 per cent of the income.

The income categories and affordability levels thus can be defined as
follows:-
H
O
U
S
I
N
G

Taking the income classification of different income groups as defined by the
Government of India, the affordability levels would be as follows;
H
O
U
S
I
N
G

It is obvious that not all the households in each category

would be concentrating at the upper end of the spectrum.
H
Affordability levels of most of the poor would be much lower O
than what is being communicated by the figures in Table 3.
U
It is also quite evident, that at current prices these cannot fetch
much of a house in most urban areas.
S
I
It is important to define the lower limits for each income
category also in order to plan for provisioning of all for lowest of
N
income group in each category. G

Affordability is to be defined not only in terms of purchase price

of the house (in case of ownership housing) or rent but must also H
include other charges/fees (registration charge, search cost O
etc.) payable at the time of purchase/renting of the house as U
also recurring cost over the lifetime of stay in the house. S
These would include taxes, maintenance cost, utility cost. I
One may also include cost of commuting to work place or N
other places of different members of family. G

Informal Housing.
•Definition
• Informal Settlements, which for a variety of reasons do
not meet requirements for legal recognition H
• Informal or insecure land tenure, inadequate access to O
basic services, both social & physical infrastructure and U
housing finance.
S
• Significant regional diversity in terms of their
manifestation I
N
G

H
O
U
A slum, as defined by the United Nations agency UN-HABITAT, is a run-down area of a city
S
characterized by substandard housing and squalor and lacking in tenure security.
I
 An area of a city, where poor people live and the buildings are in bad unhabitat
N
condition
 A very untidy place G
 Densely populated area of substandard housing, usually in a city,
characterized by unsanitary conditions and social disorganization

For the purpose of census , slums have been
categorized and defined as the following , three
types :
•Notified slums
All notified area in a town or city notified as
“slum” by state, UT Administration or Local
H
Government under any Act . O
•Recognized slums
All area recognized as 'slum' by state ,UT
U
Administration or Local Government ,Housing
and slum boards, Which may have not been
S
formally notified as slum under any act.
I
N
•Identified slums
A compact area of at least 300 population or about G
60-70 households of poorly built congested
tenements, in unhygienic environment usually
with inadequate infrastructure and lacking in
proper sanitary and drinking water
facilities.(Identified)

Three Major Reasons for the growth of slums in URBAN AREAS
1. The shortage of land development for housing
2. The high prices of land beyond the reach of urban poor
3. A large influx of rural migrants to the cities in search of jobs

H
• Change of agricultural scenario
O
• No prospects in the rural areas U
• Large amount of Job opportunities in cities
• Preference on labor market than agriculture
S
• Decentralization I
• Economic conditions
• Education
N
• Improper use of land G
• Industrialization
• Lack of zoning
• Migrants

Reasons for the growth of slums in URBAN AREAS
H
O
U
S
I
N
G

Characteristics of slums Problems of slums
SLUM = POVERTY  Inhuman and dangerous living conditions due

 Poor living conditions
to lack of security. Recognized slum &
identified slum
H
 No Education
Very poor hygienic conditions

 Constant fear of losing their homes. O
 Recognized slum & identified slum
 Poor health care  No hygienic sanitary facilities. . Notified slum U
 High Crime rate & Recognized slum & identified slum
 No clean drinking water. . Notified slum & S
Recognized slum & identified slum
 No basic civic services like waste collection and
I
disposal. . Recognized slum & identified
slum
N
 No properly maintained drainage system. G
identified slum
 No proper electricity or paved roads.
Recognized slum & identified slum

H
O
U
S
I
N
G

Peoples occupation in slums
0.96 %
Self – employed in primary sector activities
• Non-government salaried employment 0.15 %

• Business 4.46 % H
• Wage labor and other than own account workers 0.42 % O
Self –employed professional and worker 5.71 %
•
U
• Non- earners 3.74 %
S
• Union government employment 7.19 %
• State government employment 4.36 % I
Population
N
• Slum population all over India is 40,297,341 (40 million) G
• 4% of total Indian population lives in slums
• Almost quarter of Indian metro cities live in slums
• Sadly 5 million of this population are young children(0-6 age group.
• Mumbai - 55%, 44% of pune, 40% of pune India’s top list on slum population.

Initiatives
• Different Governments have different ways to handle the problem of growing slums.
• Various NGOs are also taking initiatives to help govt in dealing with this issue.
• Agencies like Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission( JNNURM) and slum
Rehabilitation Authority (SRA) plan the Rehabilitation of the slums in metros. H
Solutions O
Short term U
•Rehabilitation of major slums in better hygienic places
•Re construction of the middle level slums in the same area with proper drainage system and S
water supply.
•Provision of basic amenities ,medical and health care , education to eradicate poverty I
completely.
N
Long term
• The objective should be to reduce the migration from rural areas.
G
• Providing the basic amenities and better opportunities in rural areas
• Encouraging agricultural and small scale industries.
• Self help schemes
• Site and services
• Local authority schemes

SLUM REHABILITATION
The rehabilitation programme to be
implemented through Public Private
Partnership (PPP) and to be designed in
such a manner that the private companies
invest money in return for commercial H
benefits from the special FSI concessions
given to them under this programme. O
U
ADVANTAGES OF SLUM REHABILITATION : S
Large quantum of low-income housing stock
Better town planning in encroached areas – better roads, drainage, open
I
spaces N
Better image of City after removal of the slum.
Slum dwellers:
G
Lifelong asset created
Social upliftment and participation in benefits of urban living
Improved Quality of Life

BENEFITS OF SLUM REHABILITATION
•Large quantum of low-income housing stock
•Better town planning in encroached areas – better roads, drainage, open spaces
•Better image of City after removal of the slum.
SLUM REHABILITATION:
H
SLUM REDEVELOPMENT:
Slum rehabilitation is nothing but Demolition of building and construction O
the rebuilding of homes, reunite the buildings which is used by private
community, re-render the living enterprise, public agencies and as U
standard of people. commercial centers. S
INSITU SCHEME- Slums were rehabilitated in the same site.
I
PAP SCHEME-an owner of vacant unencumbered land can use it for
construction of PAP tenements for which he is compensated by TDR for land
N
and for construction. G
TRANSIT SCHEME-In this scheme, the landowner is allowed to consume
the existing FSI potential of the land, owned by him. The developer
constructs transit tenements out of a prescribed part of this additional
potential. The balance is allowed as free sale component.

SPECIAL SCHEMES
All the activities existing in the slum even if non-conforming with the
zone of the area shall be allowed to be relocated.
All reservation plots up to 500 sq.mt. in area under slum shall be cleared
of slums and the slum dwellers shall be relocated elsewhere.
Minimum density on plot shall be 500 tenements per net hectare.
H
Incentive commercial FSI of 5% granted to the society of slum dwellers O
SLUM REHABILITATION
U
Rehabilitation - rebuild the
homes, reunite the community, and S
re-render the living standards and
habits.
I
N
The rehabilitation programme to
be supported by a competent G
authority, the Slum Rehabilitation
Authority (SRA), under a “single-
window” clearance system.

Site and services scheme:
Under a wide variety of types and variations, "Sites-and-Services" schemes
are the provision of plots of land, either on ownership or land lease
tenure, along with a bare minimum of essential infrastructure
needed for habitation.
INTRODUCTION
H
Rapid growth of urban areas in most developing countries in the last O
few decades has led to shortfall in many sectors, primarily
housing.
U
The problem has been two-fold: S
1. on one hand, the majority of the people moving to the urban
areas have lacked the necessary asset and financial I
holdings in order to acquire a "decent" house. N
2. On the other hand, the designated government
agencies and bodies have not provided sufficient G
housing units which are affordable for the poor majority in
urban areas.
The proliferation of slums and squatter settlements has been a result
of this scenario.

The realization that providing a "complete" serviced house by
government agencies is not possible or simply cannot be afforded by
most low-income families prompted a shift in focus from supplying a fully
serviced house to that of providing only serviced land.
The key characteristic of the approach the use of the beneficiaries'
"sweat equity" and other internal resources (community, H
financial and so on) in the actual construction and development of the
houses.
O
Sites-and-services schemes became the byword for solving the problem U
of squatter settlements.
Squatter settlements were and has always been considered illegal and in S
order to relocate and rehabilitate the squatters (as a function of "slum
clearance"), plots of land (or sites) with infrastructure on it (or services) were I
provided, and the beneficiaries had to, in most of the projects, build
their own houses on such land.
N
There are a wide variety of sites-and-services schemes, ranging from the G
subdivided plot only to a serviced plot of land with a "core" house
built on it.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONCEPT
The genesis behind Sites-and-services schemes is not new:
low-income people have always been housing themselves,
albeit "illegally", in most urban areas of the developing world.
H
The key departure from earlier housing schemes, like low-cost housing
or subsidized high-rise housing units, is that it recognized the O
ability of the low-income households to build their own U
house, provided an opportunity was given.
Particularly in face of the failure of the conventional housing S
approaches, coupled with a number of studies that pointed out the
ingenuity and perseverance of squatters to house themselves, providing
I
sites and services only was touted as a answer to the problems of N
housing the poor in developing cities.
G
Sites-and-services schemes have also faced considerable
opposition and failure in a number of projects, primarily due to
a series of assumptions and misconceptions on the way in which
low-income families house themselves.

SITES-AND-SERVICES: THE BASIC PRINCIPLES
The key components of a housing scheme are
1. the plot of land,
2. infrastructure (like roads, water supply, drainage, electricity
or a sanitary network), H
3. and the house itself.
Various inputs that go into them include finance, building
O
materials/technology, and labour. U
S
I
N
G

SITES-AND-SERVICES: THE BASIC PRINCIPLES
Thus, the sites-and-services approach advocated the role of government

agencies only in the preparation of land parcels or plots with
certain basic infrastructure, which was to be sold or leased to the
intended beneficiaries.
H
O
The next step of actual house building was left to the beneficiaries
themselves to use their own resources, such as informal finance or family U
labour and various other types of community participation modes to build their
house. S
The beneficiaries could also build the house at their own phase,
I
depending on the availability of financial and other resources. This adopted the N
basic principle of the development of a squatter settlement but without the
"squatting" aspect. G

TYPOLOGIES IN SITES-AND-SERVICES SCHEMES
Depending on the investment made, resources available, the implementing
agency or degree of organization of the beneficiaries, sites-and-services
schemes were activated in a number of differing ways.
This variation was a result of the attempt to strike a balance H

between minimum "acceptable" housing conditions and
affordability of the beneficiaries.
O
U
While following the basic rule of a plot of land (sites) and essential
infrastructure (services), the degree of participation and inputs of the S
implementing agency on one hand, and the beneficiaries on the
other, varied greatly. I
They ranged from an empty plot of land and some services (like
N
water, electricity and sanitation connections) to the provision of G
a "core" house (consisting of a toilet and kitchen only) on the plot of land
with attached services.

TYPOLOGIES IN SITES-AND-SERVICES SCHEMES
Some of the variations attempted in sites-and-services projects include:
Utility wall:
A "utility" wall is built on the plot which contains the connections for
water, drainage, sewerage and electricity.
The beneficiaries had to build the house around this wall, and utilize the
connections from it.
H
Some projects provided this utility wall in the form of a sanitary core O
consisting of a bathroom/toilet, and/or a kitchen.
Latrine: U
Due to its critical waste disposal problem, many project provide a basic
latrine (bathroom and/or toilet) in each plot. Some of the variations attempted in S
sites-and-services projects include:
Roof frame/ shell house, core house: I
The roof is the costliest component of a house and requires skilled labour
to build.
N
Therefore, some projects provide the roof structure on posts, and the G
beneficiaries have to build the walls according to their requirements.
Conversely, a plinth is sometimes built by the implementing agency,
which forms a base over which the beneficiaries can build their house.
Other variations to this are the shell house (which is an incomplete house
consisting of a roof and two side walls, but without front or rear walls) and
a core house (consisting of one complete room).

ACTORS AND ACTIONS IN SITES-AND-SERVICES SCHEMES
The two key actors in a sites-and-services project are the intended beneficiaries
and the implementing agency.
In most cases, the intended beneficiaries of the project belong to the lower
income group of an urban area - for example, squatters who have been relocated
from their original illegal settlement.
They are characterized by low incomes, informal sector jobs or irregular H
employment and lack the necessary assets to enable them to afford a "formal" sector
house. O
With basic skills in construction, many are in a position to build their
own house (there are however exceptions to these features - which have resulted in
U
the failure of many sites-and-services schemes).
The other principle actor in the sites-and-services schemes is the implementing
S
agency.
In most cases, this is a government department or similar body, like the Housing
I
Boards. Operating from goals and objectives on a city-wide scale and for all N
income groups, such agencies initiate sites-and-services schemes both for the
provision of housing of low-income families as well as removing G
"eyesores" that squatter settlements depict.
The basic division of the stages of implementation between these two
principle actors determines the type of scheme being proposed.
Several other actors play essentially supportive roles, including various
government agencies responsible for provision of infrastructure, non-
governmental or voluntary organizations and so on.

SHORTCOMINGS OF THE SITES-AND SERVICES
APPROACH
Some of the constraints have been:
Location:
With high land costs in urban areas, most sites-and-services schemes H
are location on the fringe where such costs are not very high.
This however causes two problems:
O
1. one, the large distance between the site and existing U
delivery networks, off-site and on-site provision of
infrastructure is high and construction can be delayed. S
2. Two, the extra distances that the beneficiaries have to I
travel (and the consequent extra costs) to the employment
centres would discourage many beneficiaries to take N
advantage of such schemes. G

SHORTCOMINGS OF THE SITES-AND SERVICES APPROACH
Bureaucratic Procedures:
Selection procedures, designed to ascertain that applicants meet eligibility
criteria, tend to be cumbersome, time-consuming and full of
bureaucratic pitfalls, and provide opportunities for corruption. H
Besides, for many low-income families, the eligibility criteria are
impossible to meet due to informal sector jobs or low/irregular
O
incomes. U
Delay in provision of Services: S
Due to a lack of coordination between the various implementation
agencies and a "spread" of responsibility of providing the infrastructure I
and services, there is considerable delay in the final provision the services, even
after the land has been allocated to the beneficiaries.
N
G

SHORTCOMINGS OF THE SITES-AND SERVICES APPROACH
Standards:
High standards of construction and building quality is set by the
implementing agencies making such schemes unaffordable to the target
beneficiaries. H
Some sites-and-services schemes, for example, prohibit income
generating activities on residential plots, including rental of
O
rooms: they, thereby, limit the opportunities of residents to earn an U
(additional) income to pay for their plot and their house.
Cost Recovery: S
Most sites-and-services schemes are plagued by poor cost recovery.
One reason is the high costs that beneficiaries have to bear shortly I
after moving into the scheme.
They have to pay for the plot as well as construction of the house,
N
while they might be facing loss of income due to the move to the new scheme. G
Transport, water and electricity costs add to the burden which they
might not have had before.
But some of the main reasons for poor recovery has been delay in
provision of services, inadequate collection methods, lack of
sanctions for non-payment and absence of political will to enforce payment.

FUTURE PROSPECTS FOR SITES-AND-SERVICES SCHEMES
The positive aspect of sites-and-services schemes that deserves support is its
recognition of the ability of people to house themselves, with a little
backing from the government agencies.
Thus the role of the government changes from that of a "provider"
to an "enabler". H
It also enables them to save scarce resources by "sharing" the
responsibility of housing with the intended beneficiaries. O
On the part of the beneficiaries, it makes best use of existing/potential
resources, both at the household level as well as the community level.
U
On a large scale, it enables the low-income families to obtain S
decent housing and services, at levels that can be afforded by them.
While sites-and-services schemes are not a blanket solution for all ills of low- I
income housing, it does provide potential for future housing, making
best use of existing resources, both governmental and household. N
G

The approach first appeared on a large scale in Madras (now Chennai)
in 1972 when the World Bank engaged Christopher Charles
Benninger to advise the Madras Metropolitan Development Authority
(MMDA) on their housing sector investments.
The approach links the user group's ability to pay with land prices
and the costs of rudimentary and up-gradable infrastructure. H
The fundamental idea is to market plots with essential
infrastructure at market prices, to avoid the resale of subsidized O
housing, directed at low income groups.
The first major scheme planned by Benninger, at Arambakkum in
U
Chennai, created about 7,000 shelter units, within the paying capacity S
of the urban poor.
Within five years the MMDA created more than 20,000 units and the I
approach became a major strategy of the World Bank to tackle a variety of
shelter problems globally. N
G

Low Cost Housing
Definition
• It is considered a concept of reduction in the cost of construction without
sacrificing the strength required for the performance of the building.
Concept H
• It is said that it is a misconception that low cost housing is based on
O
inferior specifications, low quality and produces sub standard work.
• It is said that it is a misconception that low cost housing is only for the
U
poor S
Key Features I
• Inexpensive to build N
• Save money while also maintaining building quality G
• Not sacrificing the strength, performance and life of the structure
• Takes less time in building in comparison to the conventional ones
• Use of resources while not harming the environment
• Final result should be affordable for most people

Acceptance of low cost housing concept
• Low housing concept has still not been accepted by majority of architects
and engineers.
Possible reasons:
H
• Simple (architectural features make it costly)
O
• Low specifications (rich specifications make it costly)
• Low acceptability among middle income group and high income group
U
people S
• Low cost housing reflects that it is the housing of low cost and though it may I
have nothing to do for whom the housing is made but general concept is that N
low cost housing is for poor and it is very difficult to change the existing
G
concept.
• Some of the engineers and administrators have started calling it as affordable
housing which is again for them who cannot afford a good house at a higher
cost.

Why do we need low cost houses?
• Growing population day by day
• Affordable housing for BPL people
• We need a solution that is fast
H
• Easy to build
O
• Fulfils the needs of conventional houses
• Our country aims that in our near future each and every individual has
U
his/her shelter for his family and to fulfil this need we definitely need S
some immediate plans I
N
G

Different building techniques are:
• Recycling
• Extensive planning
• Modular planning H
• Infilling
O
U
S
I
N
G

Recycling
• Recycled materials adapted for low- cost
housing include wood and rubber that are
previously been used.
H
• Reprocessed into materials that are used O
in building walls and other parts of a U
house. S
• Recycled glass and metal are also used on I
occasion.
N
• These recycled materials are often less
G
expensive than using fully natural
products.

Extensive planning
• In extensive planning, the more planning
goes into a house, the less the actual
construction will cost.
H
• Contractors should plan out exact
dimensions and should gather facts.
O
• Contractors should look for the best U
materials at the cheapest prices so they S
can order exactly what they need. I
• This saves money that would otherwise N
be wasted on unnecessary supplies and
G
cleanup caused by littered materials.
Most houses are built as quickly as
possible without this detailed planning
beforehand.

Modular planning
• Modular building is a type of
construction where pieces of the home
or typically whole rooms or major parts H
of rooms ,are built off- site in large O
factories.
U
• This process allows the pieces to be built
S
efficiently and exactly according to
building standards.
I
• At the site, the pieces are connected to N
the house. G
• Since materials aren't assembled on-
site, owners save money on construction
time,

Infilling
• Infilling is the practice of going back
through residential areas and building
in areas that had previously been left
H
empty.
• Now its possible to build on because of
O
resolved environmental concerns, U
space issues or other problems that S
have since been remedied. I
• Infilling makes better use of existing N
space.
G
• It is less expensive for contractors
overall

Techniques to reduce cost from area
• Reduce plinth area by using thinner wall concept.
• Use locally available material in an innovative form like soil cement
blocks in place of burnt brick.
H
• Use energy efficiency materials which consumes less energy like concrete
O
block in place of burnt brick.
• Use environmentally friendly materials which are substitute for
U
conventional building components like use R.C.C. Door and window S
frames in place of wooden frames. I
• Preplan every component of a house and rationalize the design procedure N
for reducing the size of the component in the building. G
• By planning each and every component of a house the wastage of
materials due to demolition of the unplanned component of the house
can be avoided.

H
O
U
S
I
N
G

Construction technique adopted
• Foundation
• Wall
• Lintel
H
• Roof
Foundation
O
• The foundation cost comes to about 10 to 15% of U
the total building S
• Suggested to adopt arch foundation in ordinary I
soil for effecting reduction in construction cost up
N
to 40%.
G
• In the case black cotton and other soft soils it is
recommend to use under ream pile foundation
which saves about 20 to 25% in cost over the
conventional method of construction.

Wall
• Making use of Rat – trap bond wall & Concrete block wall.
• It is a cavity wall construction and leads to reduction in the quantity of
bricks required for masonry work.
H
• By adopting this method of bonding of brick masonry compared to
traditional English or Flemish bond masonry, it is possible to reduce in
O
the material cost of bricks by 25% and about 10to 15% in the masonry U
cost. S
• By adopting rat-trap bond method one can create aesthetically pleasing I
wall surface and plastering can be avoided. N
G

Concrete block walling
• In view of high energy consumption by
burnt brick it is suggested to use concrete
block which consumes about only 1/3 of the H
energy of the burnt bricks in its production. O
• By using concrete block masonry the wall
U
thickness can be reduced from 20 cms to 15
S
Cms.
• Concrete block masonry saves mortar
I
consumption, speedy construction of wall N
resulting in higher output of labour, G
plastering can be avoided thereby an
overall saving of 10 to 25% can be achieved.

Lintel
• The traditional R.C.C. lintels
which are costly can be replaced
by brick arches for small spans
H
and save construction cost up to O
30 to 40% over the traditional U
method of construction. S
• By adopting arches of different I
shapes a good architectural
N
pleasing appearance can be given
G
to the external wall surfaces of the
brick masonry.

Roof
• Normally 5" thick R.C.C. slabs is used for
roofing of residential buildings.
• By adopting rationally designed construction
practices like filler slab and precast elements
the construction cost of roofing can be H
reduced by about 20 to 25%.
• Filler slabs They are normal RCC slabs where O
bottom half (tension) concrete portions are U
replaced by filler materials such as bricks,
tiles, cellular concrete blocks, etc S
These filler materials are so placed as not to
•
I
compromise structural strength, result in
N
replacing unwanted and nonfunctional
tension concrete, thus resulting in economy.
G
• These are safe, sound and provide
aesthetically pleasing pattern ceilings and
also need no plaster.

Health principles in housing
• It seems obvious that health is related to where people live. People spend
50% or more of every day inside their homes.
• Consequently, it makes sense that the housing environment constitutes H
one of the major influences on health and well-being. O
• These fundamental needs include
U
• physiologic and psychologic needs,
S
• protection against disease,
• protection against injury,
I
• protection against fire and electrical shock, and N
• protection against toxic and G
• explosive gases.

Fundamental Physiologic Needs
Housing should provide for the following physiologic needs:
• Protection from the elements,
• A thermal environment that will avoid undue heat loss, H
• A thermal environment that will permit adequate heat loss from the O
body,
U
• An atmosphere of reasonable chemical purity,
S
• Adequate daylight illumination and avoidance of undue daylight glare,
• Direct sunlight,
I
• Adequate artificial illumination and avoidance of glare, N
• Protection from excessive noise, and G
• Adequate space for exercise and for children to play.

Fundamental Psycho logic Needs
Seven fundamental psycho logic needs for healthy housing include the
following:
• Adequate privacy for the individual, H
• Opportunities for normal family life, O
• Opportunities for normal community life,
U
• Facilities that make possible the performance of household tasks without
S
undue physical and mental fatigue,
• Facilities for maintenance of cleanliness of the dwelling and of the
I
person,
N
• Possibilities for aesthetic satisfaction in the home and its surroundings, G
and
• Concordance with prevailing social standards of the local community.

Protection Against Disease
Eight ways to protect against contaminants include the following:
• Provide a safe and sanitary water supply;
• Protect the water supply system against pollution; H
• Provide toilet facilities that minimize the danger of transmitting disease; O
• Protect against sewage contamination of the interior surfaces of the U
dwelling; S
• Avoid unsanitary conditions near the dwelling;
I
• Exclude vermin from the dwelling, which may play a part in transmitting
N
disease;
• Provide facilities for keeping milk and food fresh; and
G
• Allow sufficient space in sleeping rooms to minimize the danger of contact
infection.

HOUSING QUALITY STANDARDS GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
• Sanitary facilities;
• Food preparation and refuse disposal;
• Space and security;
H
• Thermal environment; O
• Illumination and electricity; U
• Structure and materials; S
• Interior air quality; I
• Water supply;
N
• Access;
G
• Site and neighbourhood;
• Sanitary condition

Sanitary Facilities
• Performance Requirement
• The dwelling unit must include sanitary facilities within the unit.
• The sanitary facilities must be in proper operating condition and adequate
H
for personal
O
• Cleanliness and disposal of human waste.
• The sanitary facilities must be usable in privacy.
U
Acceptability Criteria S
• The bathroom must be located in a separate room and have a flush toilet in I
proper operating condition.
N
• The unit must have a fixed basin (lavatory) with a sink trap and hot and cold
G
running water in proper operating condition.
• The unit must have a shower or tub with hot and cold running water in
proper operating condition.

Food Preparation and Refuse Disposal
Performance Requirement
• The dwelling unit must have suitable space and equipment to store, prepare,
and serve food in a sanitary manner H
O
Acceptability Criteria
• The dwelling unit must have an oven and a stove or range. A microwave
U
oven may be substituted for a tenant-supplied oven and stove or range. S
• A microwave may be substituted for an owner-supplied oven and stove or I
range if the tenant agrees and microwave ovens are furnished to both N
subsidized and unsubsidized tenants in the same building or premises. G

• The dwelling unit must have a refrigerator of appropriate size for the
family.
• All required equipment must be in proper operating condition. According H
to the lease, equipment may be supplied by either the owner or the
O
family.
U
• The dwelling unit must have a kitchen sink in proper operating
condition, with a sink trap and hot and cold running water. The sink
S
must drain into an approved public or private system. I
• The dwelling unit must have space for storage, preparation, and serving N
of food. G
• Facilities and services for the sanitary disposal of food waste and refuse,
including temporary storage facilities where necessary, are required.

Space and Security
• The dwelling unit must provide adequate space and security for the family.
• At a minimum, the dwelling unit must have a living room, a kitchen and a H
bathroom. O
• The dwelling unit must have a least one bedroom or living/ sleeping room U
for every two persons. S
• Dwelling unit windows that are accessible from the outside must be lockable.
I
• Exterior doors to the unit must be lockable.
N
• A living room may be used as sleeping (bedroom) space, but no more than
two persons may occupy the space.
G
• Unit windows located on the first floor, at the basement level, on a fire
escape, porch, or other outside space that can be reached from the ground
and that are designed to be opened must have a locking device. (Windows
with sills less than six feet off the ground are considered accessible.)

Thermal Environment
• The dwelling unit must be able to provide a thermal environment that is

healthy for the human body. Acceptability Criteria H
• There must be a safe system for heating the dwelling unit, such as electric O
baseboard, radiator, or forced air systems. In order to ensure a healthy
U
living environment appropriate for the climate the system must be able to
S
provide adequate heat either directly or indirectly to each room.
• If present, the air conditioning system or evaporative cooler, must safely
I
provide adequate cooling to each room. N
• The heating and/or air conditioning system must be in proper operating G
condition.
• The dwelling unit must not contain unvented room heaters that burn gas,
oil, or kerosene

Illumination and Electricity
• Each room must have adequate natural or artificial illumination to permit
normal indoor activities and to support the health and safety of occupants.
• The dwelling unit must have sufficient electrical sources so occupants can use
essential electrical appliances. H
• Electrical fixtures and wiring must not pose a fire hazard. O
Acceptability Criteria U
• There must be at least one window in both the living room and each sleeping
S
room.
• The kitchen area and the bathroom must have a permanent ceiling or wall-
I
mounted fixture in proper operating condition. N
• The kitchen must have at least one electrical outlet in proper operating G
condition.
• The living room and each sleeping space must have at least two electrical
outlets in proper operating condition. Permanent overhead or wall-mounted
light fixtures may count as one of the required electrical outlets.

Structure and Materials
• The dwelling unit must be structurally sound.
• The structure must not present any threat to the health and safety of the
occupants and must protect the occupants from the environment.
H
• Ceilings, walls, and floors must not have any serious defects such as severe O
bulging or leaning, large holes, loose surface materials, severe buckling, U
missing parts, or other serious damage. S
• The roof must be structurally sound and weather-proof. The foundation and I
exterior wall structure and surface must not have any serious defects such
N
as serious leaning, buckling, sagging, large holes, or defects that may result
G
in air infiltration or vermin infestation.
• The condition and equipment of interior and exterior stairs, halls, porches,
and walkways must not present the danger of tripping and falling.
• Elevators must be working safely.

Interior Air Quality
• The dwelling unit must be free of air pollutant levels that threaten the
occupants’ health.
H
O
• The dwelling unit must be free from dangerous air pollution levels from
carbon monoxide, sewer gas, fuel gas, dust, and other harmful pollutants.
U
• There must be adequate air circulation in the dwelling unit. S
• Bathroom areas must have one openable window or other adequate I
ventilation. N
• Any sleeping room must have at least one window. If the window was G
designed to be opened, it must be in proper working order.

Water Supply
• The water supply must be free of contamination.
Acceptability Criteria H
• The dwelling unit must be served by an approved public or private water O
supply that is sanitary and free from contamination.
U
• The PHA should be satisfied that the water supply is approved by the State
S
or local jurisdiction.
• Clean water must be distributed to all unit fixtures and waste water must
I
leave the unit to an approved area without presence of sewer gas and N
backups. G
• Plumbing fixtures and pipes must be free of leaks and threats to health and
safety.

Access
• The unit must have private access.
• In case of fire, the building must contain an alternate means of exit such as
H
fire stairs, or Windows, including use of a ladder for windows above the
second floor.
O
• The PHA must determine that the unit has private access without U
unauthorized passage through another dwelling unit or private property. S
• The emergency (alternate) exit from the building (not the unit) may consist I
of fire stairs, a second door, fire ladders, or exit through windows. The N
emergency exit must not be blocked. It must be appropriate for the family
G
and considered adequate by local officials. Guidance from the local fire
agency is advisable.

Site and Neighbourhood
• The site and neighbourhood must be reasonably free from disturbing
noises and reverberations or other dangers to the health, safety, and
general welfare of the occupants.
H
Acceptability Criteria O
• The site and neighbourhood may not be subject to serious adverse natural U
or manmade environmental conditions, such as dangerous walks or steps, S
instability, flooding, poor drainage, septic tank back-ups or sewer hazards,
I
mudslides, abnormal air pollution, smoke or dust, excessive noise,
N
vibration, or vehicular traffic, excessive accumulations of trash, vermin, or
rodent infestation, or fire hazards.
G

Sanitary Condition
• The dwelling unit and its equipment must be in sanitary condition.
• The dwelling unit and its equipment must be free of vermin and rodent H
infestation. O
• The PHA must ensure that the unit is free of rodents and heavy
U
accumulations of trash, garbage, or other debris that may harbour vermin.
S
Infestation by mice, roaches, or other vermin particular to the climate must
also be considered. The unit must have adequate barriers to prevent
I
infestation. N
G

Legislation for housing development
H
O
U
S
I
N
G

H
O
U
S
I
N
G

Cost-effective materials and technologies for housing
H
O
U
S
I
N
G

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UNIT – II

UNIT –II SOCIO- ECONOMIC ASPECTS

• As the social agenda, the economics of urban housing is equally

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• There has been a substantial rise in India's urban population, that

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Affordability is generally viewed as a ratio of price/rent of housing

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It is obvious that not all the households in each category

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Affordability is to be defined not only in terms of purchase price

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1. The shortage of land development for housing

2. The high prices of land beyond the reach of urban poor

3. A large influx of rural migrants to the cities in search of jobs

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SLUM = POVERTY  Inhuman and dangerous living conditions due

Very poor hygienic conditions

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• Non-government salaried employment 0.15 %

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•Large quantum of low-income housing stock

•Better image of City after removal of the slum.

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Thus, the sites-and-services approach advocated the role of government

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This variation was a result of the attempt to strike a balance H

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