F – test

is used to test a hypothesis

concerning the means of three or more
populations, the technique is called
analysis of variance( ANOVA)
The analysis of variance that is used to
compare three or more means is called
a one-way analysis of variance
F – test is the ratio of the variable estimates

F = MSb
MSw
where: MSb = mean square between
MSw = mean square within
To solve for F, we have to solve for the sum of
squares( SS) using the:
1. Deviation method
2. Raw score method
Example 1.) The following are IQ’s of random
samples of students from 3 large schools.
School 1 School 2 School 3
101 93 104
107 106 96
106 95 103
98 96 108
115 100 93

At 5% level of significance, test if there is significant

difference among the three groups. Use deviation
method.
School 1 School 2 School 3
101 93 104
107 106 96
106 95 103
98 96 108
115 100 93
X1 = 105.4 X2 =98 X3 =100.8
S 21 =42.3 S2 2 =26.5 S2 3 =37.7
n1=5 n2=5 n3=5
1. Ho: μ1 = μ2 = μ3 ( There is no significant
difference among the three groups.)
Ha: μ1 ≠ μ2 ≠ μ3 ( There is a significant difference
among the three groups.)

Mean Square Within(MSw )

MSw = s21 + s22 + s23 + …s2 k
k
where: s2 = group variance
k = number of samples or groups
MSw = 42.3 + 26.5 + 37.7 = 35.5
3
Mean Square Between( MSb)

MSb = mΣ( X – XG )2
k–1
where: m = number of observations in each
sample/group
XG = grand mean
k = number of samples/groups
MSb = mΣ( X – XG )2
k–1
= 5[( 105.4 – 101.4)2+(98 – 101.4)2 + ( 100.8 – 101.4)2 ]
3–1
= 5(27.92)
2
= 69.8
F = MSb = 69.8 = 1.97
MSw 35.5

Dfb = k – 1 = 3 -1 = 2

Dfw = N– k = 15 – 3 = 12

Critical value at 5% level of significance with

degrees of freedom at( 2, 12) is 3.89

Decision: Fail to reject Ho, since the computed F is

less than the critical value.
Correlation
is the process of exploring the relationship or
association between variables

Correlation Between Interval Variables

Pearson’s Product – Moment Correlation
Coefficient
- denoted by r . It is the measure of the linear
association between two variables that are
measured on interval of the ratio scales.
The correlation coefficient is measured on a scale
that varies from +1 to – 1.
Interpretation of the calculated relationship
between two variables :
0.0 – no correlation
±0.01 - ±0.25 – very low correlation
±0.26 - ±0.50 – moderately low correlation
±0.51 - ± 0.75 – high correlation
± 0.76 - ± 0.99 – very high correlation
±1 – perfect correlation
rxy = nΣxy – (Σx)(Σy)
√[n Σx2 – (Σx)2] [n Σy2 – (Σy)2]
where : n = number of sample
x = first variable
y = other variable
Example 1.) An education researchers wishes to
determine the extent of relationship of the results
between the reading comprehension test and the
vocabulary test among 13 years old students. There
were 12 students who became the subjects of the
study.
The scores of the 13 students on the tests are
shown below:
Student Reading Vocabulary x2 y2 xy
Comprehension Test (Y)
(X)
1 3 11 9 121 33
2 7 1 49 1 7
3 2 19 4 361 38
4 9 5 81 25 45
5 8 17 64 289 136
6 4 3 16 9 12
7 1 15 1 225 15
8 10 9 100 81 90
9 16 15 256 225 240
10 5 8 25 64 40
11 3 12 9 144 36
12 8 4 64 16 32
Σx=76 Σy=119 Σx2=678 Σy2=1,561 Σxy=724
rxy = nΣxy – (Σx)(Σy)
√[n Σx2 – (Σx)2] [n Σy2 – (Σy)2]
=12(724) – (76)(119)
√ 12(678) – (76)2 ][12(1,561) – (119)2
r= - 0.11
Correlation between Ordinal Variables

Spearman Rank Order Correlation Coefficient

is used to calculate the correlation of ordinal
data which are classified according to order or
rank.
rs = 1 – 6ΣD2
N( N2 – 1)
where : D= difference between subject
ranks on the two variable
N = number of subjects
Example: Two judges were asked to rank art
projects submitted by students in a certain subject.
The rankings are shown on the table below.
Measure the degree of relationship of the sets of
variables.
Project Ranks D D2
Judge A Judge B
A 1 2 -1 1
B 2 1 1 1
C 3 4 -1 1
D 4 3 1 1
E 5 6 -1 1
F 6 7 -1 1
G 7 5 2 4
D2=10
rs = 1 – 6ΣD2
N( N2 – 1)
= 1 – 6(10)
7(72- 1)
= 1- 60
336
r= 0.82
Hypothesis – Testing using P- value
Method

1. State the hypotheses and identify the

claim.
2. Compute the test value.
3. Find the P – value.
4. Make the decision.
5. Summarize the results.
Example 1. A researcher wishes to test the claim that
the average age of lifeguards in Ocean City is greater
than 24 years. She selects a sample of 36 guards and
finds the mean of the sample to be 24.7 years, with a
standard deviation of 2 years. Is there evidence to
support the claim at α = 0.05? Find the p- value.

1. Ho : μ ≤ 24, Ha: μ > 24

2. Compute the test value: z = 2.10
3. Find the p – value. Find the corresponding area under
the normal distribution for z = 2.10. It is 0.4821.
subtract this value for the area from 0.5 to find the area
in the right tail.
0.5 – 0.4821 = 0.0179 = p - value
4. Make the decision. Since the p – value is less
than 0.05, the decision is to reject the Ho.

α =0.05 0.0179

24 24.7
5. Summarize the results. There is enough evidence to
support the claim that the average age of lifeguards in
Ocean City is greater than 24 years.
2. A researcher claims that the average wind speed in a
certain city is 8 miles per hour. A sample of 32 days has
an average wind speed of 8.2 miles per hour. The
standard deviation of the sample is 0.6 miles per hour.
At α = 0.05, is there enough evidence to reject the
claim? Use the p- value method.
1. Ho: μ = 8 ( claim), Ha: μ ≠ 8
2. Compute the test value.
z = 1.89
3. Find the p – value.
Area of z = 1.89 is 0.4706
0.5 – 0.4706 = 0.0294
Since this is a two –tailed test, the area of 0.0294 must
be doubled to get the p- value.
2( 0.0294) = 0.0588
4. Make the decision.

0.0294 0.0294
0.025 0.025

8 8.2
The decision is not to reject the Ho, since the p-
value is greater than α=0.05. 0.0588 > 0.05
Decision Rule When using a P- value
1. If P- value ≤ α, reject the null hypothesis.
2. If P – value >α, do not reject the null
hypothesis.
If P – value ≤ 0.01, reject the null hypothesis. The
difference is highly significant.
If P – value > 0.01 but P- value ≤ 0.05, reject the
null hypothesis. The difference is significant.
If P – value > 0.05 but P- value ≤ 0.10, consider
the consequences of type I error before rejecting
the null hypothesis.
If P – value > 0.10,do not reject the null
hypothesis. The difference is not significant
4. A physician claims that joggers 'maximal volume
oxygen uptake is greater than the average of all
adults. A sample of 15 joggers has a mean of 40.6
milliliters per kilogram(ml/kg) and a standard
deviation of 6 ml/kg. If the average of all adults is
36.7 ml/kg, is there enough evidence to support the
physician’s claim at α = 0.05?

1. Ho: μ ≤ 36.7 , Ha: μ> 36.7( claim)

2. Compute the test value. t = 2.517
3. Find the P – value .
With df = 14, 2.517 falls between 2.145 and 2.624
corresponding to α= 0.025 and α= 0.01 since this is
a right- tailed test. Hence , 0.01 < P- value < 0.025.(
The P – value obtained from a calculator is 0.012.)

4. Reject the null hypothesis since P- value < α.

5. There is enough evidence to support the claim
that the joggers’ maximal volume oxygen uptake is
greater than 36.7 ml/kg.
Rules:
1. If δ is known, use the z – test. The variable must
be normally distributed if n < 30.
2. If δ is unknown but n ≥ 30, use the z – test and s
in place of δ in the formula.
3. If δ is unknown and n < 30, use the t – test. ( The
population must be approximately normally
distributed.)
5. A researcher knows from past studies that the
standard deviation of the times it takes to inspect a
car is 16.8 minutes. A sample of 24 cars is selected
and inspected. The standard deviation was 12.5
minutes. At α = 0.05, can it be concluded that the
standard deviation has changed? Use the P- value
method.
1. Ho: δ=16.8, Ha: δ ≠ 16.8
2. Compute the test value.
Χ2 = ( n – 1 )s2 ( Chi- square Test for Single variance)
δ2
= 12.733
3. Find the P- value.
df = 23, the value 12.733 falls between 11.689 and
13.091, corresponding to 0.0975 and 0.95. Since these
values are found on the left side of the distribution, each
value must be subtracted from 1.Hence, 1 – 0.0975 =
2(0.025)= 0.05 and 1 – 0.95 = 2(0.05)= 0.10. Since this is
a two-tailed test, the area must be doubled to obtain the P-
value interval. Hence, 0.05 < P- value< 0.10. ( The P-
value obtained from the calculator is 0.085)
4. Make the decision. Since α = 0.05 and P- value is
between 0.05 and 0.10, the decision is do not reject Ho
since P- value is greater than α.
5. Summarize the results. There is not enough evidence to
support the claim that the standard deviation has changed.