Development of voice

The Infant larynx

 It is not possible to examine the larynges of

neonates.

 Information has to be acquired by-excised

larynges.

 There is some difference of opinion concerning

the exact length of the vocal folds at birth

 Most notable feature-minute laryngeal sphincter

 Negus(1949)

 3mm-14 days
 5.5mm-1 year
 7.5mm-5 years
 8 mm-6y 6m
 9.5mm-15 years
Hirano, kurita and Nakashima(1983)
 Length varied from 2.5mm to 3.0mm
 Variation in size and weight of infants influences
laryngeal size.
 The fibres of the vocalis muscle are incomplete
at birth and develop along side the
thyroarytenoid muscle, which increases
considerably in size from the ninth month.

 Von Leden (1961) and Hollien (1980) reported

that the length of the vocal folds increases about
80% from birth to 12 months of age.
 The mucosal cover of the vocal folds is very
thick and there is no vocal ligament
observable in early infancy.

 This develops between 1 and 4 years

 The lamina propria does not have the three-

layer structure
 The ligament becomes thicker and
differentiation of the 2 layers in the vocal
ligament begins between the ages of 6 and
12 years.

 After the age of 15, a clear three-layer

structure can be consistently observed.

 Maturation of the layer structure of the vocal

fold seems to be completed around the end
of adolescence.
 Vocal Fold Structure in Infants

 The layered structure at the vocal fold edge

in newborn differs significantly from that in
adults.

 Especially, the lamina propria of the mucosa

is markedly different in the three age groups.
 The lamina propria is very thick, however,
relative to the vocal fold length and is rather
uniform in structure.

 There is no evidence of a ligament and the

entire lamina propria is rather loose and pliable.

 The intermediate and deep layers of the vocal

folds are not differentiated into collagenous and
elastic fibers
 Respiration in infants

 The glottis is sphincteric and opens and closes

reflexly in concert with inspiration and expiration.
 The pharynx is hypersensitive which ensures
instant spasmodic closure of the glottis at the
slightest excitation from saliva or milk.
 This is followed by immediate expulsion by
coughing and spluttering accompanied by poorly
coordinated inspiratory and expiratory activity,
which however proves effective
 Before birth lungs are yellowish and solid,
tucked away in the back of the chest.

 Immediately after the birth, the tissue of the

lungs expand like the petals of a flower and the
colour changes to rose red.

 From the dramatic moment of the birth cry, the

infant is launched into automatic life-supporting
respiration.
 During the first year control over vegetative
respiration gradually develops.
 The infants acquires the ability to change from
quiet breathing to the changed rhythm and
volume necessary in vocalization, in babbling
and eventually speech.
 Studies of respiratory movements can be
carried out through magnetometry which tracks
the anteroposterior diameter of the rib cage and
abdominal wall and impedance
pneumonography which measures the
circumference of respiratory structures.
 Such measures are non intrusive but accurate
and have revealed that breathing in infants is
extremely variable.

 At one month, breaths may be taken at a rate of

87 /min and irregularity is not uncommon.

 The rate gradually decreases to 61 breaths/min

at 6 months and 42 /min at 12 months
 The diaphragm is the chief muscle involved in
respiration in infancy.

 The ribs are relatively perpendicular to the spine

and do not contribute to thoracic movement until
the child is able to sit and assume upright
posture
 VOCAL SIGNALS IN INFANTS

 The voice is used to signal distress and

discomfort and to emit cries for help. The first cry
signals that infant is alive and respiration is
commenced.

 The sounds emitted by the infants are aperiodic

noises which encompass a considerable range
of frequencies and an amazing volume of sound
considering the tiny instrument
 In the neonate the epiglottis is at the level of the
first cervical vertebra and the inferior border of
the cricoid cartilage is at the level of C4. (These
positions descend to C3 and C6 in the adult.)

 As the thyroid cartilage and hyoid bone are

adjoining at birth the epiglottis is near the velum
and the root of the tongue is in the oral cavity
 During the first 4 years the root of the tongue
and the larynx descend into the pharynx.

 The vocal tract of the new born is incapable

of producing the full range of speech sounds
although the formants of vowels /ae/ and /u/
are apparent in sound spectrographic
analysis
 The formants produced inevitably reflect the
characteristics of a vocal tract which at birth
resembles that of non-human primates more
than that of human adults.

 The cries of newborn have been analyzed

extensively with spectrographic recordings
and acoustic analysis.
 A study done by Fairbanks(1942) on his son, from
the age of 1 month to 9 months. He recorded
fundamental frequency was 373 Hz and
subsequently increased to a mean of 814 Hz at 5
months and then stabilized at a decreased mean of
640 Hz at 9 months.

 He attributed the regular and rapid rise in frequency

upto 5 months to increased neuromuscular
development and not to increasing length of VFs.
 Wasz – Hockert et al (1968) carried out a
spectrographic and acoustic analysis of the
infant cry. The subjects were 39 boys and 4 girls
of age range 1-30 days, and 87 infants age
ranging from 1-7 months.

 They distinguished four characteristic signals

produced by babies: birth, hunger, pain and
pleasure cries. The birth cry is tense, the
longest signal and best identified.
 Maximum mean pitch recorded was 740 Hz
and minimum pitch recorded was 460 Hz and
this cry has mostly flat or falling melody.

 The hunger cry mean ranges from 500 Hz to

360 Hz. It is never tense but lax and is often
nasal and contains no glottal plosives, vocal
fry or sub harmonic breaks.
 A study of a male and female for the first 141
days of life, by Sheppard and Lane (1968)
showed that the fundamental frequency for
the male baby’s cry was 443 Hz with a range
of 404 – 481 Hz. The mean for the female
was 414 Hz with a range of 384 – 481 Hz.
 DEVELOPMENT OF VOICE IN
CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE

 The fundamental frequency continues to

decrease with age and by 5 years the child’s
speaking voice settles under the influence of
environment at a median pitch or 2 – 3
semitones higher.
 The child’s singing range, which varies very little
in boys and girls, covers the middle octave at
the age of 7 years and at 8 years the lower
range is slightly extended.
 At 9 years the range extends a little further in
both directions (higher and lower).
 The range of voice in both girls and boys is
similar despite the fact that vocal folds of boys
being larger by 8%.
 In brief, the voice range for both sexes
remains constant at about two and a half
octaves between 6 and 16 years.
 Respiration
 Before puberty lung function is almost identical
in boys and girls of equal size. Boys chest
however grows in lateral and longitudinal
dimensions more than girls. It was also noted
that a low level of physical activity in childhood
affects size of lungs
 It was noted that children with less
opportunity for physical exercise had 7% less
vital capacity than physically active children.
 CHANGES IN ADOLESCENCE

Respiration

 The young adult has approximately 4 times the

lung volume of the 5 year old. Vital capacity is at
its peak during the late teens and early twenties
after which it gradually deteriorates with reduced
diaphragmatic action. Breathing rate is between
10 and 22 breaths per min.
 Larynx:

 During the period of 10 – 14 years there is a

sudden increase in rate of growth and size.
Hormonal changes take place and male and
female characteristics emerge.
 The mutational period may begin at 13/14 years in
boys & continues till 16/18 yrs but in girls it begins
on average at 12 yrs and continues until 15 years.
 The voices of girls mature due to enlargement of
larynx consistent with body growth.

 The voices of boys drop in pitch due to rapid

growth of larynx. The voice drops an octave and
the vocal folds double in length.

 The internal angle of thyroid cartilage decreases

so that the Adam’s apple develops.
 In the girls the mean length of the vocal folds
is 15mm before puberty and this may
increase to 17 mm.

 During the mutational period a boy’s vocal

folds may increase to a maximum of 23mm.
 The minimum vocal fold length for the male is 17
mm, so it can be seen that a tensor and a
contralto may have much the same pitch range,
but it is the larger resonators of the larynx,
pharynx and the chest which distinguishes the
male from voice of the female.
 The layer structure of the lamina propria of the vocal
fold matures in adolescence and by 16 years it
resembles the structure of adult vocal fold. Prior to
this the layers are less well defined.

 This change in the inner structure of the vocal fold

mucosa is a significant factor in voice mutation
besides the increase in the length of the vocal folds.
 Vocal pitch

 Voice mutation and vocal pitch are

questionably tied to the growth of the larynx
and lengthening of the vocal cords.
 Mc Glone and Hollien (1983) found that the
girl’s vocal pitch is at its highest at 7-8 years ,
drops 2.4 semitones between 11 and 15
years, and remains the same level
throughout the life.
 Michel, Hollien and Moore (1966) recorded the
speaking fundamental frequency pitch of 15, 16 and
17 yr old girls and found that this was 207.5 Hz,
207.3 Hz and 207.8 Hz respectively.

 This indicates that fundamental frequency is

established at 15 years in girls and pubertal
mutation is over although body growth continues
upto 20 years of age and over.
 Vocal shifts and breaks

 The pitch breaks which occur in children’s

voices over the age of 7 years have received
much attention on account of the need to
understand and manage the vocal mutation
difficulties of adolescence in singing.
 Weiss (1950) defines ‘break of voice’ as a
sudden and involuntary change in pitch and
quality.

 ‘Voice break’ therefore should be properly

confined to the characteristic fluctuations in pitch
and quality in adolescence during period of
voice mutation
 The voice may rise or fall an octave and change
register, rising to falsetto or falling to the bass
register.

 These shifts consist of abrupt and uncontrolled rises

and falls in vocal pitch due to poor coordination of the
laryngeal musculature associated with general bodily
growth.

 In pre-pubertal boys these shifts do not have the

masculine quality which is so conspicuous and
bizarre, a feature of real voice break in adolescence.
 The young boy’s resonator system naturally cannot
produce the necessary resonance characteristics
of the adult male voice.

 The vocal shifts would appear to be perfectly

normal physiologic feature of juvenile (childhood)
laryngeal function. These shifts may also be
aggravated by vocal abuse in children who shout
and scream often.
 Luchsinger (1982) states that the real voice break
or ‘stormy mutation’ occurring in male
adolescence is not the general rule and is
encountered in only a minority of boys due to vocal
or psychogenic strain .
 Weiss (1950) suggested that the sudden drop or
rise in the voice , changing momentarily from the
childish treble to the adult male voice or vice
versa, is so conspicuous that it has accordingly
been considered the main characteristic of the
pubertal voice change by speech pathologists.
 Middle age to senescence

Respiration

 The lungs deteriorate with increasing age due to

the changes in the tissues.

 These changes are more marked in men than in

women and result in gradual reduction in strength
of the respiratory muscles.
 Reduction in the mobility of the thoracic cage
also occurs due to stiffness in the costovertebral
joints.

 In the advanced age the lungs bronchi shrink

and sink to a lower position in thorax.

 The sensitivity of the air way is reduced with

increasing age and coughing is less likely to
occur (slonim and Hamilton, 1976).
 Changes vary greatly with different individuals
and their lifestyles.

 Exposure to pollutants, especially smoking,

reduces the elastic recoil of the lungs.
 Particles of dust in the smoke cause irritation,
and the tar deposit damages the bronchial
epithelium and contributes ultimately to
emphysema.

 The oxygenation of the blood is impaired by the

CO while the nicotine increases cardiac
frequency and systemic blood pressure.
 As the age advances, closure of the respiratory
bronchioles is increased during expiration and the
residual volume increases.

 At 20 years the residual volume in the male is on

average 1.5 liters but at age 60 years it is 2.2 liters.
 The expendable expiratory volume of air for
phonation will grow less, and can be maintained
by exercise and conscious control.

 The respiratory aspect of ageing may have little

noticeable effect on speech but will prove to be
an abstacle in maintaining the singing voice.
 Laryngeal calcification

 The cartilages of the larynx may begin to calsify

and lose their elasticity after the age of 25 years
although this is not necessary the case.

 In Kahane s (1983) study of excised larynges,

the laryngeal cartilages showed signs of
ossification from the third decade in men and the
fourth decade in women. Pantoja (1968)
examined the cartilages of 100 normal adults.
 He found that ossification in the thyroid cartilage
begins in the inferior horns and progresses
along the inferior and posterior borders and then
along the anterior border and angle.

 He confirmed that calcification is not constant

and may be absent even in the oldest patients.

 It is generally agreed that female laryngeal

cartilages change more slowly, and that these
changes progress less far, than in males
(Kahane, 1983).
 Vocal fold histological changes

 Another aspect of ageing is the atrophy of the

laryngeal muscles.
 The vocal folds are visibly less tense and may
exhibit bowing.
 The mucous membrane may be reddish or show
yellow or brownish pigmentation.
 In these circumstances the voice will become
unsteady and lack resonance.
 Pitch changes

 The literature concerning pitch changes from

adult life to old age is extensive but not in total
agreement.

 Mysak (1959a)) and Mysak and Hanley (1959)

in their studies of adult male found that voice
pitch falls in middle age from that of early
adulthood but thereafter rises with increasing
age.
 In the middle age the fundamental pitch was 110
HZ but had risen to 124.9 HZ in the 65-79 year
group and to 142.6 HZ in the 80-92 year group.

 The elderly woman studied by Mc Glone and

Hollien (1963) also exhibited raised pitch with
increasing age with a mean fundamental pitch of
196.6 Hz in thee 65-79 year group and a mean
fundamental pitch of 199.8 Hz in the 80-94 year
group
 Honjo and isshiki (1980) found that, as expected ,
the difference in vocal characteristics in elderly men
and women reflect the differences they found in the
vocal folds.

 As a result of vocal fold atrophy, elderly men tend

to have a higher fundamental frequency than
younger men. In contrast, aged women frequently
have a lower fundamental frequency and more
restricted pitch range than young women because
of vocal fold edema.
 Vocal amplitude

 The reduction in the expiratory volume due to

the lung changes already described reduces
intensity of voices in some cases.

 On the other hand an increase in the loudness

of speech is observed by Greene (1982) and
attributed to hearing loss
 Ryan (1972) studying the acoustic aspects of the
ageing voice draws attention to the fact that all
the sensor motor processes slowly deteriorate
and adversely affect articulation and resonance
of the voice.
 Hearing loss is of great significance in control of
vocal volume and the hard-of-hearing need to
raise the voice to hear themselves, especially
against a background noise. Schow and
Nerbonne (1980) tested the hearing of 202
elderly residents of a nursing home with age
range 65-98 years
 There was evident progressive deterioration in
hearing, especially for high frequencies.

 Vision is the another factor in controlling vocal

volume. Poor sight renders it difficult to judge the
distance between speaker and listener.