 Invention of radioactive by Henri Becquerel

(1896) followed by the research of Marie and

Currie, Rutherford etc.
 Rutherford found that there are 3 substances
that are emitted by radioactive: alpha (He),
beta (electron) and gamma (electro magnetic 
x-ray).
 Beta (Negatron) decay
 Beta (positron) decay
 Electron capture decay
 Branched decay and beta decay of isobars
 Alpha decay
 Nuclear Fission
 Atomic Neutron Mass number
Number number
Parent Z N Z+N=A
Daughter Z+1 N-1 Z+1+N-1=A

Beta (Negatron) decay

Stabel

Atomic number (Z)

Daughter
Z+2, N-2

Unstabel
Daughter
Z+1, N-1

Parent
Z, N

Neutron number (N)

 Atomic Neutron Mass number
Number number
Parent Z N Z+N=A
Daughter Z-1 N+1 Z-1+N+1=A
Parent
Z, N

Beta (Positron) decay

Unstabel

Atomic number (Z)

Daughter
Z+1, N-1

Stabel
Daughter
Z+2, N-2

Neutron number (N)

 Atomic Neutron Mass number
Number number
Parent Z N Z+N=A
Daughter Z-2 N-2 Z+N-4=A-4

Alpha Decay Parent

Atomic number (Z)

Z, N

Daughter
Z - 2,
N-2

Neutron number (N)

 dN dN
 N     dt
dt N
N: number of remaining atom
t: time  ln N  t  C
We need a constant  decay constant
()
C   ln No
N0: N initial at t=0
dN
  N
dt Substituting to previous
equation

10
 ln N  t  ln N 0
D*  N 0  N
ln N  ln N 0  t D*: number of daughter atom

N D*  N 0  N 0 e t
ln  t
N0 
D*  N 0 1  e t 
N D*: number of stable radiogenic
 e  t daughter atom
N0
 t
N  N 0e
11
 Half live (T½) is the 1  T 1

time required for N 0  N 0e 2

2
one-half of given
number of a 1
ln    T1
radiometric to decay. 2 2
 When t= T½, N=½ ln 2  T1
N0 2

ln 2 0.693
T1  
2
 

12
 Exponential decay of
radionuclide (N) to stable
daughter (D*)
 The number of parent
atoms is reduced by a
factor 2-1per half live.
 If decay in “n” half live
so the parent will be
reduced by factor of 2-n.

13
 In the application of D*  N0  N
radiometric dating, D*  Net  N
therefore, it is more
convenience to

D*  N et  1 
relate the number of In the general case the total
daughter (D) to the Number of daughter atoms (D) is:
number of D  D0  D *
remaining parent
atom (N) 
D  D0  N e t  1 
D  D0
 e t  1
N
1  D  D0 
t  ln   1
  N 
14
15
 The radioactive 
dN1
dt
 1 N1

nucleus may decay dN 2

dt
 1 N1  2 N 2

to a series of N1  N10e  1t

dN 2
 2 N 2  1 N10e  1t  0
radioactive daughter dt
1
N2   
N10 e  1t  e  2 t  N 20e  2 t
and finally into 2  1

stable daughter
nuclide.
 N1(parent)N2N3… As N 20 will be zero, the above equation
reduced to
Nn
1
N2 
2  1

N10 e  1t  e  2 t 
16
 N1(parent)N2N3…N
n
 Bateman (1910) solved
the case of such
radioactive dacay series.
N 20  N 30  N 40  ...N n0  0
 The solution giving the N n  C1e  1t  C2e  2 t  ...Cn e  n t
number of atom of any where
member of the decay C1 
12 ...n 1 N10
2  1 3  1 ...n  1 
series as a function of 12 ...n 1 N10
time for the condition C2 
1  2 3  2 ...n  2 
that the initial number
of daughter nuclides are
zero.

17
N 3  C1e  1 t  C2e   2 t  C3e   3 t
12 N10
C1 
2  13  1
12 N10
C2 
1  2 3  2 
12 N10
C3 
1  3 2  3 
12 N10e  t 1
12 N10e  t 12 N10e  t
2 3

N3   
2  1 3  1  1  2 3  2  1  3 2  3 
Assuming that N3 is stable3 = 0, so the equation reduced to:
2 N10e  t 1 N10e  t
1 2

N3     N10
2  1  1  2 
 1e 2 t 2e 1t 
N3  N 1 
0
 
 2  1  2  1  
1
18
 N1parentN2 rad.daughterN3 stable daughter
 T1/2N1= 1 Hr, T1/2N2=5 Hr
 1=0.693 hr-1, 2=0.1386 hr-1
 The decay series graph is depicted in the
following figure.

19
20
dN 2 12 N10e  1 t 12 N10e  2 t
 
dt 2  1 2  1
Maximum or minimum if

dN 2
0
dt
1  1 
tm  ln   Applicable if 1> 2
1  2  2 

21
22
 1
 If we have a long N2 
2  1

N10 e  1t  e  2 t 
period of half live of 1
parent nuclide and N2  N10e   t
1

2  1
shorter half life of 1
daughter radioactive, N2  N1  2  1  2
2  1
so: N1 2

N 2 1
  1 1 
D*  N  N11 
0 1
  ...  
 2 3 n 
1

1 1 1
  ...  1
2 3 n
D*  N10  N1
D*  N1 e  1 t 1
23
 The basic unit for the measurement of
radioactivity is the curie (Ci): is defined as the
quantity of any radioactive nuclide in which
the number of disintegration is 3.700 x 1010 per
second.
 1 mCi = 10-3 Ci
 1 Ci = 10-6 Ci

24
 The K-Ar method is the only decay scheme that
can be used with little or no concern for the
initial presence of the daughter isotope. This is
because 40Ar is an inert gas that does not
combine chemically with any other element
and so escapes easily from rocks when they are
heated. Thus, while a rock is molten, the 40Ar
formed by the decay of 40K escapes from the
liquid.
 Aston (1921) found the K radioactive as 41K and
39K.

 In 1935 Nier presented the evidences of the

occurrence of radioactive 40K, that is more
sensitive to the mass spectrometry.
 The decay of 40K was discussed by Von
Weizsacker (1937). He concluded that the 40K
undergoes branched decay to 40Ca and to 40Ar.
 Weizsacker also postulated the presence of
excess 40Ar in the old K-bearing minerals.
 The theoretical basis for K-Ar dating method
was establishe by about 1950
 Potassium has three naturally occurring
isotopes 39K, 40K and 41K.
 Their abundance:
 39K: 93.2581 ± 0.0029 percent
 40K: 0.01167 ± 0.00004 percent
 40K: 6.7302 ± 0.0029 percent

 The atomic weight: 39.098304 ± 0.000058

(Garner et al., 1975).
 Branch decay of 40K
to 40Ca and 40Ar.
 88.8% 40K decay to
40Ca by negatron

decay.
 11.2% 40K decay to
40Ar by electron

capture followed by
gamma emission.
 The growth of radiogenic 40Ca and 40Ar in K-
bearing system closed to potassium, argon and
calcium during its lifetime is expressed by
equation: 40Ca* + 40Ar* = 40K(et – 1).
  = e + 
 e = decay constant of 40K to 40Ar = 0.581 x 10-10 y-1
  = decay constant of 40K to 40Ca= 4.962 x 10-10 y-1
  = 0.581 x 10-10 +
4.962 x 10-10 = 5.543 x
10-10 y-1 40Ar = 40Ari + 40Ar*
ln 2 40Ar =0
T1  i
2

0.693 1  40 Ar *    
T1   1. 250 x10 9
y t  ln  40    1
2
5.543 x10 10
  K  e  
e 40
40
Ar*  K (e t  1)

 No 40Ar produces by decay of 40K escaped
 Mineral is in closed system soon after the formation of
40Ar.

 No 40Ar was incorporated

 Appropriate correction for the presence of atmospheric
40Ar

 The mineral closed to potassium

 Isotopic composition of potassium is not changed
(except the decay of 40K)
 The decay constants of 40Ar are known accurately
 The correction of 40Ar and of potassium were
determined accurately.
 In the K-Ar dating, therefore, we determine the
potassium concentration and the amount
radiogenic 40Ar.
 K concentration: flame photometry, AAS,
isotope dilution, XRF, gravimetric chemistry,
neutron activation.
 Radiogenic 40Ar: isotope dilution (volumetric
and neutron activation in the past)
 Concentrated mineral is fuse in molybdenum
crucible sealed within a vacuum system.
 Known quantity of spike 38Ar mixed with
extracted gas from the mineral.
 Gases are purified by removal of Ha, CO2, O2
and N2.
 The residual gases is introduced into mass spec.
to determine the ratio of 40Ar/ 38Ar and 38Ar/
36Ar.

 The measured value of 38Ar/ 36Ar ratio is used

to correct the presence of atmospheric argon.
 The amount of 40Ar is calculated from the
measured 40Ar/ 38Ar using the known amount
of spike argon.
    38 Ar   36 Ar   
  1   36   38   
 Ar   Ar   Ar  m  Ar  s   Ar   Ar   
40 40 40 40
Ar* 38Ar      
 38      
 
40
 x 
38 38   Ar   36 Ar  38 38
Ar  m  
 Ar  m  Ar  s
  36   38   1 
Ar  A 
   Ar  m  Ar  A  
 
 Example:
 K: 8.378 %
 40Ar*: 0.3305

 Age: 494.7 Ma
 Inability of mineral lattice to retain argon (even at low
T and atm P)
 Partial or complete melting of rock followed by
recrystallization of new minerals from the melts.
 Methamorphism at elevated temperature
 Increase in temperature due to deep burial or contact
metamorphism
 Chemical weathering and alteration by aqueous fluids
argon loss and potassium content in mineral change
 Solution and re-deposition of water-soluble
mineralsylvite (KCl)
 Mechanical breakdown of minerals, radiation damage,
shock wave. Excessive grinding during preparation.
 The effect of argon
loss due to reheating.
 Hornblende shows
better argon retained.
 In sedimentary rock K-Ar is very difficult to
apply.
 It is due to:
 Most of sedimentary rocks are composed of mineral
particles derived by erosion of older rocks.
 Sedimentary rocks composed primarily of authigenic
minerals either do not contain sufficient K for dating
or do not quantitatively retain the radiogenic 40Ar.
 e 40 t
40
Ar  Ari 
40
K (e  1)

40Ar :
the number of 40Ar per unit weight were not formed
i
by decay of 40K since closure of the rock or mineral
 Argon that was dissolved in the magma, may
have originated from the mantle of the Earth or
by outgassing of old K-bearing minerals of the
crust.
 Argon that was evolved during later thermal
methamorphism of the rocks and that diffused
into the minerals during that event
 Atmospheric argon adsorbed on grain
boundaries and microstructure while the rock
was exposed to the atmosphere in the field or
lab.
 In conventional K-Ar dating the assumption is made that all
of the initial 40Ar is of atmospheric origin. Therefore the
40Ar/36Ar ratio is of 295.5.

 To solve the existence of excess argon we can apply isochron

method. This method modifies the earlier equation by
dividing each term by the number of 36Ar atom per unit
weight of sample.
40
Ar
e 40 y
Ar  40Ari  K (e t  1)
40 36
Ar
   e  t
m   (e  1)
40
Ar  40
Ar   e  40
K t  
      (e  1)
Ar  i   
40
36
Ar  36 36
Ar K
x  36
Ar
 40 Ar 
y = b + mx b   36 
 Ar  i
 1    
t  ln m   1
   e  
 Different K-bearing minerals in given sample
of rock may have different initial 40Ar/36Ar
ratio because of variable atmospheric argon
contamination.
 The difficulty can be reduced or solve by
removal of adsorbed atmospheric argon before
the argon is extracted from the samples.
 That can be accomplished by preheating
samples under vacuum or by leaching them
briefly with hydrofluoric acid or both (Hayatsu
and Carmichael, 1977).
 The presence of excess argon in basalt erupted
on the sea floor is an important phenomenon.
 This implies to the theories about outgassing of
mantle of the Earth and the evolution of its
atmosphere.
 Allegre (1983) the ratio of 40Ar/36Ar in
oceanic basalt reaches value of about 25,000