Lecture 14

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Solid Waste Engineering &

Management
Types Of Solid Wastes

With Physical, Chemical &
Biological Properties
Types Of Solid Wastes
• Paper Category
• Plastic Category
• Glass Category
• Metal Category
• Yard Waste Category
• Organic Category
• Other Waste Category
• Special Waste Category
PAPER CATEGORY
• MIXED PAPER
• NEWSPAPER
• HIGH GRADE LEDGER PAPER
• NON RECYCLABLE PAPER

PLASTIC CATEGORY
• Polyethylene tri-phthalate containers (PET no. 1)
• High density polyethylene containers (HDPE no. 2)
• Polyvinyl chloride containers (PVC no. 3)
• Low density polyethylene (LDPE no. 4)
• Poly propylene (PP no. 5)
• Polystyrene (PS no. 6)
• Other plastics (other no. 7)
GLASS CATEGORY
• Recyclable Glass
• Non Recyclable Glass
METAL CATEGORY
• Aluminium Cans
• Ferrous Metals
• Non Ferrous Metals
• White Goods
YARD WASTE CATEGORY
• Yard Waste
OTHER ORGANIC CATEGORY

• Organic Compactable
• Organic Non Compactable
• Tires & Rubber
• Wood Waste
OTHER WASTE CATEGORIES
• Inert Slides (Inert Wastes)

• Household Hazardous Wastes
SPECIAL CATEGORY
• Sewerage Sludge
• Other Special Wastes
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• Composition Of MSW
• Moisture Content
• Generation Of Solid Waste
• Density Of Solid Waste
• Particle Size Distribution
• Field Capacity
• Permeability Of Compacted Waste
COMPOSITION OF MSW
• By composition we mean components of solid waste by

% wt.
• Varies with location, season, economic conditions
• Food waste, largest component in low income
countries, being not trimmed & absence of grinder.
• Percentage of plastic waste and paper waste is
increasing with the passage of time.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Physical composition of solid waste of Rawalpindi City by
random sampling techniques
Sample Loc Pndora Block-E Block-E ChungiNo Bny 6th Road Colag S.S Rd V.N A
Chngi .8 Chowk Road Colag v
g
a
s
Area Poor Rich Rich Poor Poor Rch Midl Midl M. Inc
Cmnty Cmnty Cmnty Cmnty Cmnty Cmnty Incm Incm
Food 5
Waste 58.9 60.5 58.3 53.3 55.7 57.8 56.4 59.4 55.5
7
Plastic
6.2 5.6 6.2 5.5 8.3 5.7 5.5 6.6 6.6 6
Card/
Paper 3.6 5.3 3.3 3.9 5.3 5.3 3.9 2.8 2.7 4
Rags
3.3 4.2 4.4 4.4 4.8 4.7 6.8 3.9 4.2 4
Wood 6.0 2.2 2.2 6.3 4.2 1.6 1.6 1.6 2.8 3
Total 7
78 77.8 74.4 73.4 78.3 75.1 74.2 74.3 71.8
Organic 4
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Physical composition of solid waste of Rawalpindi City by
random sampling techniques
Metal 15.2 14.1 13.8 14.7 16.9 13.2 12.7 12.2 14.3 14
Other 6.8 8.1 11.6 11.7 4.8 11.7 13.1 13.5 13.9 12
Total
In- 22 22.2 25.6 26.6 21.7 24.9 25.8 25.7 28.2 26
Orgnc
Grand
100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Total
MOISTURE CONTENT
• Expressed in two ways
 Wet weight measurement (% wet weight of material)
 Dry weight method (% dry weight of material)
• Wet weight commonly used in SWM
• Moisture content of samples analyzed in lab.
m = w – d x 100
W
M = moisture content
W = initial wt of sample, (kg)
D = wt of sample drying at 105oc (kg)
• For food & yard waste, various 15-40%,

• Plastic & inorganic, 3%
GENERATION OF SOLID WASTE
• Expressed in per capita.

• 0.65 kg/c/day in 2002. (for Rawalpindi City)
• Assumed to be continue for next ten years.
• Total generation, 713 tons per day.
(for Rawalpindi City)
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II MSW GENERATION RATE FOR RWP CITY
FOR THE YEARS (2003-2013)
Year Population Generation Rate
Kg/Capita/Day Daily (tons) Yearly (tons)

2003 11,34,212 0.65 737.24 2,28,544
2004 11,75,044 0.65 763.77 2,36,768
2005 12,17,346 0.65 791,27 2,45,294
2006 12,61,170 0.65 819.76 2,54,125
2007 13,06,572 0.65 849.27 2,63,273
2008 13,53,609 0.65 879.84 2,72,750
2009 14,02,339 0.65 911.52 2,82,571
2010 14,52,823 0.65 944.33 2,92,742
2011 15,05,125 0.65 978.33 3,03,282
2012 15,59,309 0.65 1013.55 3,14,200
2013 16,13,884 0.65 1049.03 3,25,197
DENSITY OF SW
• Specific wt, expressed in material per unit volume, lb/yd3
• Data needed to assess total mass & volume of solid waste
• Vary with location, season & length of time in storage

PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
• Important consideration in recovery (recycling & reuse) of

material, especially with mechanical means such as
magnetic separators.
• Relevant to incineration & biological transformation

methods.
• Largest dimension is up for sizing facilities like conveyor

belts & grinders etc.
• Shredders & separators are used to reduce to desirable

sizes for treatment of composting etc.
FIELD CAPACITY
• Total amount of moisture that can be retained in a waste

sample subject to downward pull of gravity.
• Water in excess of field capacity will be released as

leachate.
• Field capacity varies with the degree of applied pressure

& state of decomposition of the waste.
• Field capacity of un-compacted commingled wastes

from residential & commercial sources, 50-60%.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II PERMEABILITY OF COMPACTED WASTE
• Hydraulic conductivity governs the movement of liquids

& gases in a infill
• Sludges in land fills tend to resist the movement of water

down through then due to low hydraulic conductivity by
virtue of very high moisture content. Instead, rainfall is
converted to surface runoff & sludge material is
transported to surface streams
• Paper & packaging has no resistance to rain in filtration
• Hydraulic conductivity of soil governs the transport rate

of leachate within the solid waste fill
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MSW
Chemical composition is important in evaluating

alternative processing & recovery options.
If solid waste to be used as fuel, four most important

properties to be known are: -
1. Proximate analysis
2. Fusing point of ash
3. Ultimate analysis (major elements)
4. Energy content
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MSW
Where organic fraction of MSW to be composted or to be

used a feedstock for the production of other biological
conversion products, not only will information on the
major elements (ultimate analysis) that compose the
waste be important, but also information will be required
on the trace elements in the waste.
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS
• Proximate analysis for combustible components of MSW
included following tests:
 Moisture content by % wt (loss of moisture when heated
to 1050c for 1 hr)
 Volatile combustible matter (loss of wt on ignition at

9500c in a covered crucible)
 Fixed carbon (combustible residue left after volatile

matter is removed)
 Ash (wt of residue after combustion in an open crucible)

FUSION POINT ASH
• Temperature at which ash resulting from the burning of
waste will form a solid (clinker) by fusion &
agglomeration.
• Typical fusion temp ranges from 2000-2200F (1100-1200

C)
ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF SW COMPONENTS
• Determination of percent of C, H, O, N, S & Ash
• Used to characterize the chemical composition of the

organic matter in MSW
• Use to define proper mix of waste materials to achieve

suitable C/N ratios for biological conversion processes
ENERGY CONTENT OF SW COMPONENTS
• Can be determined by using a full scale boiler as a
calorimeter
• By using a lab bomb colorimeter.
• By calculation, if elemental compose is known
Potentially critical element in incineration. Can be

measured or calculated.
DuLong Formula:
Btu/lb = 145C +610(H -1/8 O) + 40S +10N

ENERGY CONTENT OF SW COMPONENTS
• Btu per lb on a dry ash-free basis is
btu/lb (dry ash-free) = btu/lb (as discarded)
Approximate btu values for indle waste material can be

determined by using modified dulong formula.
• Btu/lb = 145c+610 (h2-1/8 o2)+40s+10n
• constituents are % by weight.

BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF MSW
• Excluding plastic, rubber & leather components organic
fraction of most MSW can be categorized as follows:
 Water soluble constituents-as sugars, starches, amino
acid & various organic acids.
 Hemi cellulose-a condensation product of 5 or 6-

carbon sugars.
 Cellulose a condensation product of 6-carbon sugar

glucose.
 Fats, oils & waxes, which are esters of alcohols &

long-chain fatty acids.
BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF MSW
• Lignin a polymeric material containing aromatic rings

with methoxyle groups (-OCH3), the exact chemical
nature of which is still not known
• Lignocelluloses-a combination of lignin & cellulose.
• Proteins-composed of chains of amino acids.
• Almost all organic fraction of MSW, can be converted
biologically to gases & relatively inert organic &
inorganic solids.
• Production of orders & generation of flies are related to
put risible nature of organic material found in MSW.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II BIO DEGRADABILITY OF
ORGANIC WASTE
• Biodegradation can be aerobic or anaerobic.
• Volatile slides contents, determined by ignition at 5500C,
is often used as a measure of degradability of organic
fraction of MSW.
• Use of VS in describing the biodegradability of organic
fraction is misleading as some constituents are highly
volatile but low in biodegradability.
• Alternatively, lignin content of a waste can be used to
estimate the biodegradable fraction, as:
BF = 0.83 – 0.028 LC
BF = biodegradable fraction expressed on a VS basis
0.83 – 0.028 = Empirical Constant
LC = Lignin content of VS, expressed as a % by wt.
PRODUCTION OF ODOR
• Develop when SW stored for long periods of time on –

site
• More significant in warm climates
• Typically, results from the an aerobic decomposition of

the organic components found in MSW.
BREEDING OF FLIES
• In warm climate, it is an important phenomenon.
• Flies develop in less than two weeks.
• Maggot (larval) once develop, difficult to remove, &

can develop to flies.
Types of Solid Waste Collection

System
The detail Comparison of

HAUL CONTAINER SYSTEM &
STATIONARY CONTAINER SYSTEM
COLLECTION SYSTEM
• After the generation, the solid waste is picked up

according to a collection system.
• In the last decade several systems are used for the
collection of solid waste.
• A variety of equipment used for the solid waste collection.
TYPES OF COLLECTION Systems
Collection systems may be classified w.r.t.;

• Mode of operation
• The equipment used
• Types of waste
MODE OF OPERATION
According to mode of operation, the collection system

classified into two categories viz ;
1. HAUL CONTAINER SYSTEM (HCS)
2. STATIONARY CONTAINER SYSTEM (SCS)
HAUL CONTAINER SYSTEM (HCS)
Definition
These are collection systems in which the
CONTAINERS used for the storage of waste are:
• Hauled to the disposal site

• Emptied and
• Returned to their original location or some other
location.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II STATIONARY CONTAINER SYSTEM
(SCS)
These are collection systems in which the CONTAINERS
used for the storage of waste are:
• Remain at the point of generation, except for

• Occasional short trips to the collection vehicle for empty.
Schematic diagram of conventional mode of (a) HCS & (b) SCS

TYPES OF HCS
There are Three main types of Haul Container Systems:
1. Tilt-frame Container Systems

2. Trash-trailer.
3. Hoist-Truck
TYPES OF SCS
There are Two main types of Stationary Container

Systems:
1. Systems in which Self loading compactors are used

2. Systems in which Manually loading vehicles are used
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II TYPICAL DATA ON VEHICLES USED FOR THE COLLECTION OF SOLID WASTE
Collection vehicles Typical overall collection vehicle dimensions

Available With
container or No. indicated
Width Height Length Unloading
Type truck body of container or
in m in method
capacities axles truck body
yd3 capacity yd3
Hauled container system
Hoist truck 6-12 2 10 94 80-100 110-150 Gravity
Tilt-frame 12-50 3 30 96 80-90 220-300 Gravity
Trash-trailer 15-40 3 40 96 90-150 220-450 Gravity
Stationary container system
Compacter(mechanically loaded)
Front loading 20-45 3 30 96 140-150 240-290 Hydraulic
Side loading 10-36 3 30 96 132-150 220-260 Hydraulic
Rear loading 10-30 2 20 96 125-135 210-230 Hydraulic
Compacter(manually loaded)
Side loading 10-37 3 37 96 132-150 240-300 Hydraulic
Rear loading 10-30 2 20 96 125-135 210-330 Hydraulic
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II COMPARISON of HCS & SCS w.r.t.
MERITS & DEMERITS
SCS
HCS
Suitability: Suitable where

Suitability: Ideally
SW quantity is less and
suitable where SW rate
generation points are more.
of generation is higher.
Suitable for all types of
Suitable for all types of
wastes
wastes
except Heavy Industrial Waste
& Bulk Rubbish
Container size: Large
Container size: Small

HCS SCS
Flexibility: Containers of many Flexibility: The use of smaller
different sizes & shapes are containers offer greater
available for all types of SW. flexibility in terms of shape,ease
of loading & special features
available.
Utilization of containers: Use of
Utilization of containers: can be
large containers often leads to increased by using small, easier
low volume utilization, unless to load, containers .
loading aids (platform, ramps
etc.).
COMPARISON (contd)
HCS SCS
Unsightly & unsanitary Unsightly & unsanitary
conditions: Less with use conditions: More with use of
of large container. numerous smaller containers.
Utility of driver: is greater as to

Utility of driver: Less as collect several containers
spend more time in driving. Time: Accumulative handling
Time: Handling time time is more but trip to disposal
reduced site time is saved .
.
LABOUR REQUIREMENT
HAUL CONTAINER SYSTEM (HCS)
• Single collector is used

• For safety (in some cases) driver and helper are
deployed
• For hazardous waste driver and helper always be
deployed
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II STATIONARY CONTAINER System
(Mechanically loaded)
• Single collector is used

• for container mounted on roller , driver and helper
are brought into play.
• In congested ,inaccessible locations driver and two
helpers are used
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II STATIONARY CONTAINER System
(Manually loaded)
• Number of collectors varies from 1 to 3.

• Single collector for curve and alley service generally
used.
• Multi person crew is used for backyard carry
service.
Data for computing Equipment and Labor Requirement
Collection
Time required Time
to pickup required to
loadedcontain empty
Loading Compaction At-site time
Vehicles er & to contents of
method ratio h/ trip
deposit empty loaded
container container
h /trip h/container
Hauled container system

Hoist truck Mechanical _ 0.067 0.053
Tilt-frame Mechanical _ 0.4 0.127
Trash-trailer Mechanical 2.0-4.0 0.4 0.133
Stationary container system
Compacter Mechanical 2.0-2.5 0.05 0.1
Compacter Manual 2.0-2.5 _ 0.1
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II SCS Source separation-multicompartment wheeled
container
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II SCS Source separation-multicompartment wheeled
container
SCS (mechanically loaded Truck)
HCS Tilt-frame container loading mechanism
Solid Waste Systems in Pakistan

Masonry Bin
Open Body Truck
Hoist Container
Hoist Truck
Metal Container
Animal Cart
Transfer Stations
Transfer Station
• Alternative to direct haul

• Justified when cost to transport waste from generation
point to disposal site is greater than cost to transport from
generation point to transfer station plus haul to the
disposal site
Benefits
• Large trailers replace many collection vehicles

• Get collection vehicles back to work rapidly
• Locate disposal site far from population areas
• Opportunity to inspect waste
• Opportunity to process waste
• Use multiple disposal sites
Need
• Presence of illegal dumps and litter

• Remote disposal sites
• Small capacity collection vehicles
• Low density residential areas
Types
• Direct discharge – waste pushed into open trailers

• Storage pit – tip onto floor, into hoppers to compactor that
pushes waste into vehicle
Transfer Station Tipping Floor
Compacter
Surge Pit
Open Top Transfer Trailers
Compactor System
Pre-compactor System
Baler
Intermodal Container System
Problem Statement
Determine the break-even haul time between a direct haul

system and a transfer station operation with the following
properties:
• Direct haul system uses a 10 yd3 container

• Direct haul cost = $20/hr
• The transfer trailer has a capacity of 100 yd3
• Tractor- trailer haul cost = $40/hr
TS Facility Costs
• Function of amortized capital cost, capacity, operating

costs
• Cost $3,750,000 (for building, equipment,
tractor/trailer)
• Capacity of 300,000 yd3 per year
• CRF is 0.08 (capital recovery factor is a
function of interest rate and years to pay off –
converts capital cost to $/yr), yr-1
• TS operating cost is $225,000/yr
• Normalize all costs by capacity
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Step 1a: Calculate Capital Cost Elements
(TS)
TS total cost/yd3 = annual capital cost plus

annual op cost
Amortize Capital cost:

= $3,750,000 x 0.08 = $300,000/yr
Total annual costs:

($300,000 + $225,000) yr-1 = $525,000/yr
Cost/yd3:
($525000/yr)/300,000 yd3/yr = $1.75/yd3
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Step 1b: Calculate Hauling Operating
Cost
TS trailer haul operating cost =

$40/hr/100 yd3 = $0.40/hr-yd3
Direct haul operating cost =

$20/hr/10 yd3 = $2.00/ hr-yd3
Direct Haul Operating Cost

($2.00/ yd3-hr)
TS Operating Cost ($0.40/ yd3-hr)

$/yd3
$1.75
/yd3
1.1 hours Hours

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Equate Direct Haul Costs to Transfer Station Costs to Calculate the Break
Even Haul Time (x)
$2.00/hr-yd3 x = $1.75/yd3 + $0.40/ hr-yd3 x
x = 1.1 hours
Composting
Introduction
Composting is an anaerobic process in which the micro-

organisms, in an oxygen environment, decompose the
organic food waste as a result minerals and humus are
obtained as a final product.
Introduction
• Key Inorganic Nutrients

•nitrogen,
•phosphorus,
•sulphur,
•potassium,
•magnesium,
•calcium
•sodium
Process requirements
• Key Inorganic Nutrients

•Temperature
•Moisture content
•Oxygen
•C/N ratio
•Microbes
•pH
•Biochemical composition and texture
• Temperature
•Psychrophilic 15 o to 20o C
•Mesophilic 25 o to 35o C
•Thermophilic 50 o to 60o C
• Moisture content
•Compost should be kept moist, but not
soggy
•At the ideal moisture level, 50-60%
• Oxygen
•Optimum oxygen levels are 15 to 20 per
cent At the ideal moisture level, 50-60%
•composting inhibits at oxygen less than

10 per cent (by volume).
• Turning and ventilating compost are

meant to keep the oxygen content at a
sufficient level.
• C/N Ratio:
•Nitrogen is required for cell synthesis.
•Carbon is used as energy source
•Optimum C/N ratio is 30
•Composting operates down to C/N Ratios of 20
•Materials that are a good source of nitrogen are
called "Greens”
•Materials that are high in carbon are called
"Browns"
• C/N Ratio:
Carbon/Nitrogen Ratio of some Waste Material
Material % nitrogen (dry) C/N Ratio
Fish Scrap 6.5-10 -
Farm Yard Manure 2.15 14-1
Kitchen waste 2.0 25-1
Seaweed 1.92 19-1
Wheat Straw 0.32 128-1
Rotted Sawdust 0.25 200-1
Raw Sawdust 0.11 510-1
Food Waste 2.0-3.0 15-1
Total Refuse 0.5-1.4 30/80-1
• Microbes:
•Psychrophiles - the low
temperature bacteria
•Mesophiles - the medium

•Thermophiles - the high

• pH:
•optimum pH range is 6 to 8
• Biochemical composition
and texture:
•composition of waste
influence the process
rate
•Reducing the particle of

the raw material will in
crease the rate of
composting.
Composting systems
•Traditional Wind-row.
•Aerated static pile
•In-Vessel Composting
Composting systems
•Traditional Wind-
row.
• 1~2 meter high.
• Takes about 3 months
Composting systems
•Aerated Static Pile:
•1~2 meter high, 3~ 4 meters wide and about
20 meter long laid on floor of ventilation pipe
system
•Covered with stabilized compost
•Takes about 4~6 weeks.
Composting systems
• In-Vessel composting:
Environmental Benefits
• Compost enriches soils

• Compost helps cleanup contaminated soil
• Compost helps prevent pollution
• Using compost offers economic benefits
Problem with composting:
• Heavy Metals:
•Mercury
•Cadmium
•Copper
•Zinc
Worm Composting
Worm composting
Worm composting is using worms to recycle food scraps

and other organic material into a valuable soil amendment
called vermicompost, or worm compost. Worms eat food
scraps, which become compost as they pass through the
worm's body. Compost exits the worm through its' tail
end. This compost can then be used to grow plants. To
understand why vermicompost is good for plants,
remember that the worms are eating nutrient-rich fruit and
vegetable scraps, and turning them into nutrient-rich
compost.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Materials to be used Or avoided in a worm
composting Bin.
 Worms have been hard at work breaking down organic
materials and returning nutrients to the soil. Though
worms can eat any organic material, certain foods are
more palatable for composting purposes.
 Raw fruits and vegetable scraps are recommended mostly
for worm composting at small scales . Stay away from
meats, oils and dairy products, which are more complex
materials than fruits and vegetables. Thus, they take
longer to break down and can attract pests. Cooked foods
are often oily or buttery, which can also attract pests.
Setting Up a worm Bin
 Setting up a worm bin is easy. All you need is a box, moist

newspaper strips, and worms. To figure out how to set up
a worm bin, first consider what worms need to live. If the
bin provides what worms need, then it will be successful.
Worms need moisture, air, food, darkness, and warm (but
not hot) temperatures. Bedding, made of newspaper strips
or leaves, will hold moisture and contain air spaces
essential to worms.
 Use red worms or red wigglers in the worm bin. The
scientific name for the two commonly used red worms are
Eisenia foetida and Lumbricus rubellus.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Harvesting
 Harvesting means removing the finished compost from

the bin.
 In a favorable environment worms will work tirelessly to
eat the "garbage" and produce compost. As time
progresses, bedding will reduce and compost will
increase in the bin. After 3-5 months, when bin is filled
with compost (and very little bedding), it is time to
harvest the bin.
 To prepare for harvesting, do not add new food to the bin
for two weeks. Then remove compost from the bin by
using appropriate methods of harvesting.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Using worm compost
 Compost can be used immediately after harvesting or it

can be saved for the gardening/farming season . The
compost can be directly mixed with soil or garden soil as
a soil amendment, which helps make nutrients available to
plants.Or, the compost can be used as a top dressing fro
the fields or plant pots.
 “Compost Tea" can also be made with compost by
Simply adding 1-2“of compost or in suitable proportions
to water. Allow compost and water to "steep" for a day,
mixing occasionally. Then water plants/farms. The
resulting "tea" helps make nutrients already in the soil
available to plants.
DESIGN OF SANITARY LANDFILL SITE

Site Preparations
The following steps should be taken immediately for the
detail design of the proposed site and are essential to
develop and start the actual treatment process.
• Topographic survey of the site.
• Detail leveling of the site.
• Contour plan.
• Cutting of the 150mm top soil of the whole area and
saving it for earth cover over the solid waste.
• Preparing site for proper drainage of rain water by cutting
of high level ground and giving it a down slope (1:400)
soil obtained from this cutting is used in providing
embankment for fencing of the area.
Site Preparations
• Construction of all weather roads of 5m width, to

facilitate easy approach of trucks to all points at site.
• Providing infrastructure with all accessories, a watchman
hut with attached toilet, weight bridge, wash trough (3 x 5
x 10m) and a vehicular as well as a pedestrian entrance
gate.
• Proper fencing on the top of the embankment towards the
exterior side.
Parameters adopted for design
 All the calculations will be based on the population of

the city and the same can be projected for the land
requirements till the end of the design period.
 It is considered that 30% of the waste generated is
land filled, 60% is composted, while the remaining
10% is recycled.
 Waste will be compacted in four layers, one below the
ground level and three above the ground level. Depth
of each later will be 2m.
 Excavated soil will be used as cover material.
 Cover will be 0.15m for intermediate layers while
final layer will be covered by 0.6m (2ft) of cover
material.
 Excavation for one year will be made in advance.
Parameters adopted for design
 A bond will be provided in each layer after one year.

 Waste will be compacted to density of 1000 to 1300
Kg/m3.
 Embankments will be provided at the periphery, high
enough to enclose the site with the fencing mounted
on top.
 One standard size of cell will be adopted considering
the width of the compactor and the tractor blade.
Suitable Sites for Landfill
Problems
Example
The Town of Waytogo, population 56,789, has decided

to burn its as collected MSW which amounts to about 6
lb/capita.day. Find how many barrels of oil do they save
on a daily basis. Energy of as collected MSW is 4600
Btu/lb.
1bbl oil = 5.8x106BTU

Solution
Energy in the MSW = 4600 Btu/lb x 56,789 cap x 6

lb/capita.day
Energy in the MSW = 1.57 x 109 Btu
Oil Barrel saved = 1.57 x 109 Btu / 5.8x106BTU

Oil Barrel saved = 270 barrels/day
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Problem
(Home separation and curbside collection of recyclables)
A community is purchasing specialized vehicles for the

curbside collection of source-separated wastes. Three
recycling containers are to be provided to each residence
and residents will be asked to separate newspapers and
cardboard, plastics and glass, and aluminum and tin c ans.
the homeowner is to place the separate materials in the
appropriate containers and then move the recycling
containers to curbside once per week for collection by
special recycling vehicles. Estimate the relative volumetric
capacity required for each material in recycling collection
vehicles. Assume 80% of the recyclable material will be
separated and that newsprint represents 20% of the total
paper waste.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Problem
(Home separation and curbside collection of recyclables)
The number of homes that will participate in the

separation program is estimated to be 60%. if the
separated wastes are to b e collected from a subdivision
of 1200 homes, determine the number of trips that will
be required if the size of the collection vehicle is 15
cubic yard. Assume 3.5 residents per home.
Total solid waste Specific weight

Components
lbs lbd/ft3
Food Waste 8.0 18.0
Paper 35.8 5.6
Cardboard 6.4 3.1
Plastics 6.9 4.1
Textiles 1.8 4.1
Rubber 0.4 8.1
Leather 0.4 10.0
Yard Waste 17.3 6.3
Wood 1.8 14.8
Glass 9.1 12.2
Tin cans 5.8 5.6
Aluminum 0.6 10.0
Other metals 3.0 20.0
Dirt, Ash, etc 2.7 30.0
Total 100.00
Solution
First of all rearrange the table to calculate the relevant

volume of recycled material. By the given statement that
80% recycled material will be recovered but in the case of
news prints the %age given is 20 % of that 80% recovered
material .Thus we use 80% in all other cases but we will
take 20% of that 80% in the case of newsprints.
Now calculate the relative volume of the recycled materials:

1) Newspaper + cardboard = 1.02 + 1.65 = 2.67 ft3
2) Plastics + glass = 1.34 + 0.60 = 1.94 ft3
3) Aluminum + tin cans = 0.82 + 0.05 = 0.87 ft3
Now we will calculate the volume of required components
in 15 yd3 vehicle.
Volume of newspapers + cardboard = (2.67/5.48) x 15
= 7.3 yd3
Volume of Plastics + glass = (1.94/5.48) x 15
= 5.3 yd3
Volume of Aluminum + tin cans = (0.87/5.48) x 15
= 2.4 yd3
Waste materials
Total solid waste Specific weight Volume
Components separated
lbs lbs/ft3 ft3
Lbs
Food Waste 8.0 18.0

35.8 5.6 =35.8x0.8x0.2 1.02
Paper = 5.7
Cardboard 6.4 3.1 5.1 1.65
Plastics 6.9 4.1 5.5 1.34
Textiles 1.8 4.1
Rubber 0.4 8.1
Leather 0.4 10.0
Yard Waste 17.3 6.3

Waste materials
Total solid waste Specific weight Volume
Components separated
lbs lbs/ft3 ft3
Lbs
Wood 1.8 14.8
Glass 9.1 12.2 7.3 0.60
Tin cans 5.8 5.6 4.6 0.82
Aluminum 0.6 10.0 0.5 0.05
Other metals 3.0 20.0
Dirt, Ash, etc 2.7 30.0
Total 100.00 5.48

Numbers of trip required to collect separate waste

Assume that waste generation= 3.82 lbs/capita
Solid waste production per home= 3.5 persons x 7
day/week x 3.82
lbs/capita.day
= 93.6 lbs/week
Separated quantity of separated newspapers and

cardboards
Quantity of newspapers in total production (home) = (5.7/100) x 93.6

= 5.3 lbs/week
Quantity of cardboard in total production (home) = (5.1/100) x 93.6

= 4.8 lbs/week
Weekly volume of separated newspapers and cardboard
Separated newspapers:
= (5.3 lbs/week)/(5.6 lb/ft3)
= 0.946 ft3/week
Separated cardboards:
= (4.8 lbs/week)/(3.1 lb/ft3)
= 1.54 ft3/week
Number of trips per week

= [{(0.946 + 1.54) ft3/week .home} x 1200 homes x 0.6]/
(27 x 7.3)
= 9.081
= say 9 trips/week

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ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Solid Waste Engineering &

Types Of Solid Wastes

• HIGH GRADE LEDGER PAPER

• NON RECYCLABLE PAPER

OTHER ORGANIC CATEGORY

• Inert Slides (Inert Wastes)

• By composition we mean components of solid waste by

• For food & yard waste, various 15-40%,

• Expressed in per capita.

Kg/Capita/Day Daily (tons) Yearly (tons)

• Specific wt, expressed in material per unit volume, lb/yd3

• Data needed to assess total mass & volume of solid waste

• Vary with location, season & length of time in storage

• Important consideration in recovery (recycling & reuse) of

• Relevant to incineration & biological transformation

• Largest dimension is up for sizing facilities like conveyor

• Shredders & separators are used to reduce to desirable

• Total amount of moisture that can be retained in a waste

• Water in excess of field capacity will be released as

• Field capacity varies with the degree of applied pressure

• Field capacity of un-compacted commingled wastes

• Hydraulic conductivity governs the movement of liquids

• Sludges in land fills tend to resist the movement of water

• Paper & packaging has no resistance to rain in filtration

• Hydraulic conductivity of soil governs the transport rate

Chemical composition is important in evaluating

If solid waste to be used as fuel, four most important

Where organic fraction of MSW to be composted or to be

 Volatile combustible matter (loss of wt on ignition at

 Fixed carbon (combustible residue left after volatile

 Ash (wt of residue after combustion in an open crucible)

• Typical fusion temp ranges from 2000-2200F (1100-1200

• Determination of percent of C, H, O, N, S & Ash

• Used to characterize the chemical composition of the

• Use to define proper mix of waste materials to achieve

Potentially critical element in incineration. Can be

Btu/lb = 145C +610(H -1/8 O) + 40S +10N

Approximate btu values for indle waste material can be

• Btu/lb = 145c+610 (h2-1/8 o2)+40s+10n

• constituents are % by weight.

 Hemi cellulose-a condensation product of 5 or 6-

 Cellulose a condensation product of 6-carbon sugar

 Fats, oils & waxes, which are esters of alcohols &

• Lignin a polymeric material containing aromatic rings

• Develop when SW stored for long periods of time on –

• More significant in warm climates

• Typically, results from the an aerobic decomposition of

• In warm climate, it is an important phenomenon.

• Flies develop in less than two weeks.

• Maggot (larval) once develop, difficult to remove, &

Types of Solid Waste Collection

The detail Comparison of

• After the generation, the solid waste is picked up

Collection systems may be classified w.r.t.;

According to mode of operation, the collection system

• Hauled to the disposal site