Dr.S.

Sreedhar Reddy, Assistant Professor

University of Nizwa, Nizwa 1
 Plumbing Defined

Plumbing in general refers to the system as well as the material fixtures and the
apparatus used inside a building for supplying water, removing the used water
with other liquid and water borne wastes as also connected ventilating system.

In practice, it also includes the system of storm water or roof drainage and
exterior system components connecting to source, such as a public or a private
water system or a point of disposal of waste or used water, a public sewer
system or an individual disposal system, namely, a domestic septic tank with
arrangements for disposal of its effluent through a leaching cesspool or a
collecting well with arrangements for removal of its contents by means of a
vacuum car.

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 Plumbing Systems

The plumbing systems include:

Water supply and distributing pipes from a public water system or a private water supply
system from a bore well or other sources

Plumbing fixtures for the use in water supply as well as the collection and disposal of
used waters

Sanitary drainage system to carry the wastes from the plumbing fixtures to the public or
private disposal system

Anti-siphonage system which carry only the air for the purpose of ventilation and
preventing the failure of the water seals in traps thereby preventing the entry of foul
air from the public or private drainage system in to the building, and

Storm water drainage system to collect and carry rain water or water not used by
occupants of the building to a public storm water drain or to a local garden or a pond

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 Planning for Plumbing

Buildings whether they are for residential purposes or business purposes or industrial
purposes or public recreation places, should be built with an eye for general
sanitation and an effective and intelligently planned plumbing.

The layout of the building should be such as to allow for good and economical plumbing
to be carried out. The location of the plumbing equipment including the washing and
sanitary appliances, hot water heaters, storage cisterns etc, in a building may have
marked effects on the efficiency and cost of plumbing.

Early consideration of to the layout of the plumbing installation should remove many of
the disadvantages to emphasize that close grouping of plumbing equipment is
desirable.

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As the building is a place where protected water supply
terminates so far as the building is concerned for the user
and where the used or wastewater starts collecting for
passing outside, the possibility of contamination of the
protected water supply through cross connections between
piping systems and at the plumbing fixtures has to be borne
in mind in the design of plumbing system and effective
steps taken to avoid such a contingency.

Another important factor to be considered is the noise in

plumbing. The serious annoyance and even ill effects on
health of residents due to noise caused by the operation of
plumbing systems, particularly in the case of flats is to be
noted.

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The modern design lays emphasis on the concealment of
plumbing like other services. While realizing the advantages
from the point of view of external and internal appearance of
buildings of concealing plumbing work within walls or ducts,
sufficient precaution and safeguards are to be taken in the
event of leakages, protection against frost where pipes are
buried in outside walls and the possible harboring of vermin
behind casings.

Any pipe of fittings which is proposed to be concealed either in the

wall or below the flooring has necessarily to be wrapped with
Hessian cloth dipped in bitumen. Before the actual concealment
work is done, it is also necessary to test these fittings for
adequate water tightness.

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There is a change in the adoption of Single Pipe system and
Single Stack System from the orthodox type of Two-Pipe
System with a view to economize on the cost of plumbing and
improvement of appearance. For low cost housing this may be
considered. But for ultimate economy and efficiency, the
orthodox system is to be favored.

Above all it is important to stress on the adoption of national

standards, be it for selection of materials or equipment or
construction or testing of the installations to achieve the best
results by way of good materials at reasonably low cost, reliable
and approved workmanship, and uniformity and
interchangeability of the several similar components of the
system.

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 Principles of Plumbing

• The principles usually enunciated are the basic goals in environmental sanitation
worthy of accomplishment through properly designed, acceptably installed and
adequately maintained plumbing systems.

• Constant reference to sound principles is the surest way of maintaining good

standards, guiding developments along the right lines and discouraging unwise
departures from traditional practice.

• The essentials of good plumbing necessitate the observance of the principles

detailed below. These relate to the plumbing fixtures, the plumbing pipes and the
plumbing systems as a whole. 12
The plumbing fixtures are to be
(a) Made up of smooth and non-absorbent material
(b) located in well ventilated enclosures
(c) free from concealed fouling spaces
(d) easily accessible for the intended use
(e) able to withstand adequate pressure
(f) connected to a drainage system with water seal traps
(g) tested for leaks, defects, etc, and rectified promptly, where necessary; and
(h)heating and storage water cisterns are to be proofed against contamination and
explosions through overheating.

The plumbing pipes are to be

(a) Made of durable material, connected by suitable and satisfactory joints of good
workmanship to give satisfactory service during its reasonable life expectancy;
(b) located in places avoiding dead spaces which are not easily cleared
(c) easily accessible for inspection, working and repairs;
(d) made rodent proof; and
(e) tested for leaks, defects etc, and promptly rectified, where necessary. 13
The plumbing system are:
(a) required for minimum amount of water for proper performance and cleaning
(b) to avoid cross connections between protected water supply system and the
wastewater system
(c) to be well ventilated with no danger of siphonage,
(d) to be well designed according to national standards and statutory provisions of the
local administrative authority concerned.

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General
Buildings in which plumbing fixtures are installed shall be provided with ample
supply of potable water by connection to a public water supply system.

Where a public water supply system is not available, an approved source of

private water supply shall be provided.

Only potable water shall be supplied to fixtures and equipment at which water
is provided for purposes, such as drinking, cooking, food preparation, washing
of dishes and kitchen utensils.

Non-potable water shall not be supplied to fixtures or equipment unless

specially approved by the health authority having jurisdiction and the supply of,
non-potable water shall be limited to water-closets, urinals, and other fixtures
and equipment which do not require potable water supply.

In the case of supply from a public water supply system, it shall be ensured that
the system has been adequately designed to provide for a potable and
adequate water supply made available at the street mains with adequate 16
pressure supply to the building.
Public Water Supply

The public Water supply system is usually designed to meet the requirements over a
thirty-year period after their completion.

The population to be served during such period will have to be estimated with due regard
to all factors governing the future growth and development of the city in the industrial,
commercial, educational, social and administrative spheres.

Special factors causing sudden emigration or influx of population should also be

foreseen to the extent possible.

Usually for a city with unlimited scope for expansion and where a constant rate of growth
is anticipated, the geometrical progression method is adopted.

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Per Capita Supply
Piped water supplies for communities should provide adequately for the following as
applicable:

A) domestic needs, such as, drinking, cooking, bathing, washing, flushing of toilets,
gardening and individual air-conditioning;

B) Institutional needs

C) Public purposes, such as street washing or street watering, flushing of sewers and
watering of public parks;

D) Industrial and commercial uses including central air-conditioning;

E) Fire fighting;

F) Requirement for live-stock; and

G) Likely waste amongst all users.

In assessing these requirements due consideration should be given to the local needs,
peoples’ habits and standard of living, the industrial and commercial importance of the
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city, climatic conditions, availability of private water supplies, etc.
 Per Capita Water Supply

a) For communities with population up to IO000 ----------------------------70 to 100 liters

b) For communities with population IO 000 to 50 000 -------------------100 to 125 liters

c) For communities with population above 50 000 ------------------------125 to 200 liters

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 Water Supply for Buildings other than Residences

Table-1 Requirements for water supply for buildings other than residents

Consumption per day in Liters

Type of Building

Factories where bathrooms are provided 45per head

Hospitals 340 per bed

Hostels 135 per head

Restaurants 45 per head

Schools( Boarding) 135 per head

Schools( Day Schools) 45 per head

International and domestic airports 70 per head

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Pressure Requirements

• Piped water supplies should be designed on a continuous 24 hours basis to distribute

water to consumers at adequate pressure at all points.
• Intermittent supplies are either desirable from the public health point of view nor
economical.

The pressure requirements for the distribution system should be as given below

1. For towns where one-storeyed buildings are common and for supply to the ground
level storage tanks in multi-storeyed buildings, the minimum residual pressure should
be 7 meters

2. For direct supply, where two storeyed buildings are common. it may be 12 meters;
and where 3-storeyed buildings are prevalent, 17 meters

3. The pressure required for fire fighting will have to be boosted by fire fighting units.

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Quality requirements
The water supplied should be free from pathogenic organisms, clear, palatable, free
from undesirable taste and odor, of reasonable temperature, neither corrosive nor scale
forming and free from minerals which could produce undesirable physiological effects.

Physical and chemical standards: The physical and chemical quality of water should not
exceed the limits shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Physical Chemical standards

Acceptable limit
Parameter
Turbidity (JTU) 2.5
Color (Platinum Cobalt Scale) 5.0
Taste and Odor Un objectionable
pH 7.0-8.5
Total dissolved Solids 500(mg/l)
Total hardness 200 (mg/l)
Chlorides 200 (mg/l)
Fluorides 1.0(mg/l) 22
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 Sources of Water
Kinds of Water Sources and their Characteristics

The origin of all sources of water is the rainfall.

Water can be collected as it falls as rain before it reaches the ground; or as surface
water when it flows over the ground or is pooled in lakes or ponds; or as ground water
when it percolates into the ground and flows or collects as ground water; or from the sea
into which it finally flows.

Water from precipitation

Rain water collected from roofs or prepared catchments for storage in small or big
reservoirs is soft, saturated with oxygen and corrosive.

Microorganisms and other suspended matters in the air are entrapped but ordinarily the
impurities are not significant, but the collecting cisterns or reservoirs are liable to
contamination.

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 The water cycle

Transpiration

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Distribution of Global Water

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Surface waters
Natural quiescent waters as in lakes and Ponds

These waters would be more uniform in quality than water from flowing streams.

Long storage permits sedimentation of suspended matter, bleaching of color and the
removal of bacteria.

Self purification which is an inherent property of water to purify itself is usually less
complete in smaller lakes than in larger ones.

The microscopic organisms may be heavy in such waters on occasions.

If the catchment is protected and unerodible, the stored water may not require any
treatment other than disinfection.

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Resuspension of nutrients and
sediments
•Resuspension important
particularily in shallow
lakes but also in deep
lakes

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Artificial quiescent waters as in impounding reservoirs

Impounding reservoirs formed by hydraulic structures thrown across river valleys are
subject more or less to the same conditions as natural lakes and ponds.

While top layers of water are prone to develop algae, bottom layers of water may be high
in turbidity, carbon dioxide, iron, manganese and on occasions hydrogen sulphide.

Soil stripping before impounding of water would reduce the organic load in the water.

Flowing waters as in rivers, streams and irrigation canals

Water from rivers, streams and irrigation canals are generally more variable in quality
and less satisfactory than those from lakes and impounding reservoirs.

The quality of the water depends upon the character and area of the watershed, its
geology and topography, the extent and nature of development by man, seasonal
variations and weather conditions.

In populated regions, pollution by sewage and industrial wastes will be direct.

The natural and man-made pollution results in producing color, turbidity, tastes and29
odors, hardness, bacterial, and other microorganisms in the water supplies.
Sea Water

Though this source is plentiful, it is difficult to extract economically water of potable

quality because it contains 3.5 percent of salts in solution and it involves costly treatment
to desalt the water.

Yet it has to be adopted in places where sea water is the only source available and
potable water has to be obtained from it such as ships on the high seas or a place where
an industry has to be set up and there is no other source of supply.

Wastewater reclamation

Sewage or other waste water of the community may be utilized for non-domestic
purposes such as water for cooling, flushing, lawns, parks, fire fighting and for certain
industrial purposes after giving the necessary treatment to suit the nature of use.

The supply from this source to residences is prohibited because of the possible cross-
connection with the potable water supply system.

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Ground waters

•Rain water percolating into the ground and escaping beyond the reach of vegetation
and either collecting in underground basins or flowing underground in subsurface
streams constitutes a ground water source.

•The water as it seeps down comes into contact with organic and inorganic substances
during its passage through the ground and acquires chemical characteristics
representative of the strata passed through.

•Generally ground waters are clear and colorless but are harder than the surface waters
of the region in which they occur.

•In limestone formations ground water are very hard, tends to form deposits in pipes and
are relatively non-corrosive.

•In granite formations they are soft, low in dissolved minerals relatively high in free
carbon dioxide and are actively corrosive.

•Bacterially ground waters are much better than surface waters except where subsurface
pollution exists.

•Ground waters are generally of uniform quality although changes may occur in the31
quality with changes in the rate of draft.
While some of the chemical substances like fluorides and those causing brackishness
are readily soluble in water.

Other such as those causing alkalinity and hardness are soluble in water containing
carbon dioxide absorbed from the air or from decomposing organic matter in the soil.
Such matter removes the dissolved oxygen from the water percolating through.

Water deficient in oxygen and high in carbon dioxide dissolves iron and manganese
compounds in the soil.

Percolation into the subsoil also results in the filtering out of bacteria and other living
organisms.

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Methods of Treatment
•The aim of water treatment is to produce and maintain water that is hygienically safe,
aesthetically attractive and palatable in an economical manner.
•Though the treatment of water would achieve the desired quality, the evaluation of its
quality should not be confined to the end of the treatment facilities but should be
extended to the point of consumer use.
•The method of treatment to be employed depends on the nature of raw water and the
desired standards of water quality.
•The unit operations in water treatment constitute aeration, flocculation ,clarification,
filtration, disinfection, softening, defluoridation and water conditioning as may be
required in any individual case.

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•In the case of a ground water and well protected surface water storage where the
turbidity is below 10 JTU (Jackson Turbidity Unit) and where there is no color and odor,
plain disinfection by chlorination is sufficient.

•Where ground water contains excessive iron, dissolved carbon dioxide and odorous
gases , aeration followed by flocculation, sedimentation, rapid gravity or pressure
filtration and disinfection may be necessary.

•In case there is only carbon dioxide or odorous gases, aeration followed by disinfection
may be sufficient.

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•In surface waters with turbidities not exceeding 50 JTU and where sufficient area is
available, plain sedimentation followed by slow sand filtration and disinfection could be
sufficient.

•Conventional treatment including pre-chlorination, aeration, flocculation, sedimentation,

rapid gravity filtration and post-chlorination are adopted for highly polluted surface waters
laden with algae or microscopic organisms.

•Water with excessive hardness needs softening. This is generally, adopted for ground
waters used for washing clothes as in machine laundry.

•For removal of dissolved solids, demineralization by ion exchange may form a part of
domestic or industrial water treatment units.

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Transmission of Water
•General Water supply involves transmission of water from the
sources to the area of consumption through free flow channels or
conduits or pressure mains.
•Depending on topography and local conditions, conveyance may
be in free flow or pressure conduits.
•Transmission of water accounts for an appreciable part of the
capital outlay and hence careful consideration of the economics is
called for, before deciding on the best mode of conveyance.
•While water is being conveyed it is necessary to ensure that
there is no possibility of pollution from surrounding areas.
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Sections of Channels and Mains

Canals
•Economical sections for canals are generally trapezoidal while rectangular sections
prove economical where rock cutting is involved.
•Open canals have a restricted use in water works practice in view of the losses due to
percolation and evaporation as also the possibility of pollution and misuse of water.

Pipelines
Pipelines are circular in section and normally follow the profile of the ground surface
quite closely.

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Types of Pipes
•Pipes represent a large proportion of the capital invested in water
undertakings and therefore of particular importance.
•These are of various types and sizes consisting of spun or cast
iron (CI) steel, Rein forced cement concrete (RCC), Pre stressed
reinforced concrete (PSC), and asbestos cement (AC).
•Polyethylene (low and high density) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
are particularly used for smaller size pipes.
•The determination of the suitability in all respects of the pipe or
joints for any work is a matter of decision by the engineer
responsible for the scheme.
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Choice of pipe Material
•General factors affect the final choice of pipe material including internal
pressures, Hydraulic and operating conditions, maximum permissible
diameters, external corrosion, and any special conditions of laying.
•Due to its strength and corrosion resistance Cl can be used in soils and for
waters of slightly aggressive character.
•Their disadvantage lies in their being unsuitable for corrosive soils unless
special steps are taken to combat them, their weight adding to transportation
problems in hilly and difficult terrains.
•Steel mains being light in weight are used for large diameter especially greater
than 900 mm where Cl pipes become very heavy and costly.
•Prestressed concrete pipes are ideal for a pressure range of 0.5 to 2.0 MPa
where Cl and steel are not economical.
•AC pipes are relatively more corrosive resistant than steel or Cl, light and39
easy
to handle.
•Being more flexible and more corrosive resistant compared to metallic and concrete
pipes, unplasticized PVC and polyethylene pipes can be extensively used in hotels and
house service connections as also plumbing systems.

•The plasticized PVC is not recommended because of the uptake of lead by the water.
PVC pipes are well suited for use in mountainous terrain and undulating areas.

•They have the advantage of ease and simple jointing unlike polyethylene.

•Polyethylene pipes can be used successfully in river crossings.

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