 Definition and introduction

 Cause of Residual stresses

 Affects of Residual stresses
 Role of Residual stresses
 Methods to measure Residual stresses
 Stress intensity factors for residual stresses
 Relief of Residual stresses
 Benefits of Residual stresses
 DOS and DON’TS in deisgn
 Residual stress is the Internal stress
distribution locked into a material. These
stresses are present even after all external
loading forces have been removed. They are
a result of the material obtaining equilibrium
after it has undergone plastic deformation.
 Residual stresses are stresses that remain in
a solid material after the original cause of
the stresses has been removed. Residual
stress may be desirable or undesirable.
Desireable expample :
beneficial compressive residual stresses into
metal components used for turbine engine fan
blades
Undesireable example:
unintended residual stress in a designed
structure that may cause it to fail prematurely
 Residual stresses is not a bad thing that can
happen in a body …it is even useful at the
same time and it can be used for structural
stability
 There are some techniques which are used to
create uniform residual stress in a beam. For
example, the four point bend allows inserting
residual stress by applying a load on a beam
using two cylinders
 Residual stresses can occur
through a variety of
mechanisms including
inelastic (plastic)
deformations, temperature
gradients (during thermal
cycle) or structural changes
(phase transformation). Heat
from welding may cause
localized expansion, which is
taken up during welding by
either the molten metal or
the placement of parts being
welded. When the finished
weldment cools, some areas
cool and contract more than
others, leaving residual
stresses
 The total stress experienced
by the material at a given
location within a component
is equal to the residual
stress plus the applied
stress.
 TOTAL STRESS =RESIDUAL
STRESS+APPLIED STRESS
 Compressive (-) residual
stress acts by pushing the Residual stress in a roll formed HSS tubing
material together, while visible during band-saw slitting
tensile (+) residual stress
pulls the material apart
 UNITS OF STRESS
• SI unit for stress is the Mega
Pascal (MPa).
• US unit for stress is kilo
pounds per square inch (ksi).
6.895 MPa = 1 ksi
 Residualstresses are generated, upon
equilibrium of material, after plastic
deformation that is caused by applied
mechanical loads, thermal loads or phase
changes. Mechanical and thermal processes
applied to a component during service may
also alter its residual stress state.
 MECHANICAL: Plastification of a material
during machining.
 THERMAL: Difference in solidification of the
material. (i.e. in a cooling casting)
 PHASE CHANGE: Precipitation / Phase
transformation resulting in a volume change
(i.e. Austenite to Martensite)
 Net sum of all residual stresses across any cross
section is always zero. Across any cross section
of a component there is typically a residual
stress distribution. Residual stress distribution
affects performance.
 Residual stress affects:
• Low cycle and high cycle fatigue performance
• Distortion
• Peen forming (controlled distortion)
• Fretting
• Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) and hydrogen
initiated cracking (HIC)
• Crack initiation and propagation. (Damage
tolerance)
 Residual stresses have the same role in a
structure’s strength as common mechanical
stresses. However, while stress due to
external loads can be calculated with a
degree of accuracy, residual stresses are
difficult to foresee. It is, therefore, very
important to have a reliable method able to
measure them directly with minimum
damage to the surface
 Residual stresses can play a significant role in
explaining or preventing failure of a
component at times.
 One example of residual stresses preventing
failure is the shot peening of component to
induce surface compressive stresses that
improve the fatigue life of the component.
 Unfortunately, there are also processes or
processing errors that can induce excessive
tensile residual stresses in locations that might
promote failure of a component
 It must be kept in mind that the internal stresses
are balanced in a component. Tensile residual
stresses are counter balanced by compressive
residual stresses. Residual stresses are three-
dimensional.
 x-ray diffraction
 Ultrasonic methods
 Magnetic methods
 Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry
 Hole drilling and strain gage technique
 Core Hole drilling and strain gage technique
 Photoelastic technology for residual stress
measurement in glass
 Barkhausen noise effect for ferromagnetic
materials
 The destructive techniques is such that they result in a large and
irreparable structural change to the specimen, meaning that
either the specimen cannot not returned to service or a mock-up
or spare must be used. These techniques function using a "strain
release" principle; cutting the measurement specimen to relax
the residual stresses and then measuring the deformed shape. As
these deformations are usually elastic, there is an
exploitable linear relationship between the magnitude of the
deformation and magnitude of the released residual
stress. Destructive techniques include:
 Contour Method - measures the residual stress on a 2D plane
section through a specimen, in a uniaxial direction normal to a
surface cut through the specimen with wire EDM.
 Slitting (Crack Compliance) - measures residual stress through
the thickness of a specimen, at a normal to a cut "slit".
 Block Removal/Splitting/Layering
 Sach's Boring
 Similarly to the destructive techniques, these also
function using the "strain release" principle. However,
they remove only a small amount of material, leaving
the overall integrity of the structure intact. These
include:
 Deep Hole Drilling[8] - measures the residual stresses
through the thickness of a component by relaxing the
stresses in a "core" surrounding a small diameter
drilled hole.Main article: Deep hole drilling
 Centre Hole Drilling[9] - measures the near surface
residual stresses by strain release corresponding to a
small shallow drilled hole with a strain gauge rosette.
 Ring Core[10] - similar to Centre Hole Drilling, but
with greater penetration, and with the cutting taking
place around the strain gauge rosette rather than
through its centre.
 The non-destructive techniques measure the effects of
relationships between the residual stresses and their
action of crystallographic properties of the measured
material. Some of these work by measuring the diffraction
of high frequency electromagnetic radiation through
the atomic lattice spacing (which has been deformed due
to the stress) relative to a stress-free sample. The
Ultrasonic and Magnetic techniques exploit the acoustic
and ferromagnetic properties of materials to perform
relative measurements of residual stress. Non-destructive
techniques include:
 Neutron Diffraction
 Synchrotron Diffraction
 X-Ray Diffraction
 Ultrasonic
 Magnetic
 Optimize process parameters, such as measuring
the effectiveness of peening on a part at
 critical locations.
 • Provide a quantitative metric to enable
specifications and Go/No-Go decisions.
 • Improve product quality, substantiate supplier
quality, engineering source approval (ESA)
 • Improve safety and reduce catastrophic
failures.
 • Extend component or structure life by ensuring
sufficient compressive residual stress is present.
• Validate repair area has been “restored” to
original specifications.
 • More accurate replacement part
requirements by tracking residual stress
degradation; thus, enabling retirement for
 quantitative cause.
 • Residual stress information can improve the
probability of detection of other
nondestructive techniques.
 • Validate residual stress distribution from FE
models and or fracture mechanics
 Residual stress effects on fatigue crack
growth have been handled quantitatively
with crack closure models or superposition of
applied stress intensity factors with residual
stress intensity factors.
 Superposition of applied and residual stress
intensity factors is appropriate due to the
linear elastic models involved and hence KT =
Kapplied + Kresidual where KT is the total
stress intensity factor under mode I
conditions.
To determine Kres, the
residual stress magnitude
and profile without cracks
must be known or assumed.
Kres can then be obtained by
inserting a crack face at the
desired location and then
loading the inserted crack
face with the residual
stresses that exists normal to
the plane of crack growth
 When undesired residual stress is present
from prior metalworking operations, the
amount of residual stress may be reduced
using several methods. These methods may
be classified into thermal and mechanical (or
nonthermal) methods
 Stress relief bake :Most metals, when heated,
experience a reduction in yield strength. If the
material's yield strength is sufficiently lowered
by heating, locations within the material that
experienced residual stresses greater than the
yield strength (in the heated state) would yield
or deform. This leaves the material with residual
stresses that are at most as high as the yield
strength of the material in its heated state. Keep
in mind Stress relief bake should not be confused
with annealing or tempering, which are heat
treatments to increase ductility of a metal
 Cryogenic stress relief :Cryogenic stress
relief involves placing the material (usually
steel) into a cryogenic environment such as
liquid nitrogen. In this process, the material
to be stress relieved will be cooled to a
cryogenic temperature for a long period,
then slowly brought back to room
temperature.
 Mechanical methods to relieve undesirable
surface tensile stresses and replace them
with beneficial compressive residual stresses
include shot peening and laser peening. Each
works the surface of the material with a
media
shot peening:typically uses a metal or glass
material
laser peening: uses high intensity beams of
light to induce a shock wave that propagates
deep into the material.
 Do consider the beneficial and harmful
effects of residual stresses for all long-life
(high cycle) and intermediate-life fatigue
applications and that the greatest influence
and importance of residual stresses is at
notches.
 Compressive residual stresses efficiently
retard the formation and growth of cracks
subjected to cyclic loading and thus enhance
fatigue resistance. The opposite occurs for
residual tensile stresses.
 Don't expect much help from residual stresses in
very low cycle (less than 103 cycles) applications
due to residual stress relaxation.
 Don’t forget the importance of sufficient
residual compressive stress magnitude and
depth.
 Residual stresses are analogous to mean stresses
and therefore can be incorporated into S-N, -N,
and da/dN- K fatigue life methodologies.
 Since residual stresses are in self-equilibrium,
both tensile and compressive values must exist if
residual stresses are present. These can be
uniaxial, biaxial, or triaxial
 During non-uniform inelastic loading, surface
regions that yield in tension result in desirable
surface residual compressive stresses when the
load is removed. Surface regions that yield in
compression during non-uniform inelastic loading
result in undesirable surface residual tensile
stresses when the load is removed.
 Residual stresses can be formed from many
manufacturing methods involving mechanical,
thermal, plating, and machining operations.
These methods can be beneficial, detrimental or
have little influence on fatigue resistance.
Do remember that grinding and welding can
produce very harmful tensile residual stresses
and that tensile overloading, peening, and
surface hardening can produce very beneficial
surface compressive residual stresses.
 Don’t overlook the fact that straightening will
introduce tensile and compressive residual
surface stresses on opposite sides, and that for
other than one-way bending, the method will be
detrimental to fatigue resistance.
 Shot-peening and surface cold rolling are the
two most common mechanical methods for
introducing compressive residual surface stresses
 Induction hardening, carburizing, and nitriding are
popular thermal methods for introducing surface
residual compressive stresses for enhanced fatigue
resistance.
 Machining operations most often introduce surface
residual tensile stresses and hence decrease fatigue
resistance.
 Many of the operations that introduce undesirable
residual surface tensile stresses, e.g., chrome plating
or machining can have the detrimental aspects
reduced or eliminated by additional beneficial
treatments such as shot-peening, cold rolling, or
carburizing.
 Residual stresses have greater influence in long and
intermediate fatigue life than in low cycle fatigue.
This is particularly true for higher strength metals.
 Relaxation of residual stresses can result
from plastic deformation and also from
thermal stress relief.
 The magnitude and distribution of residual
stresses are most commonly obtained using
experimental methods such as X-ray
diffraction, hole-drilling, or sectioning.