CERAMICS PROCESSING

Science in Ceramics Processing

Traditional approach

Empirical
correlation

Processing variables Product properties

• Composition • Modulus of rapture
• Milling time • Compresive strength
• Pressing pressure • Thermal conductivity

• The properties of products is correlated with changes in processing

operation to identify important superficial variables  empirical
correlation
• The correlations do not provide a scientific understanding of the
process
 Science in Ceramics Processing (2)

Modern approach
batching finishing
forming drying
beneficiation firing

Characteristics Characteristics Characteristics Characteristics Characteristics

Initial material Process system Body Unfired product Final product

Physical / Chemical Properties Changes

• Ceramics processing is the sequence of operations that systematically

change the chemical and physical properties
• The characteristic at each stage is a function of processing variables
at each stage
• The process system at each stage is an integral part of the whole
ceramics processing
 Drying

• Drying is a postforming process of wet-processed

materials

• Drying is removal of liquid from materials by means of its

its transport and evaporation.

• Drying is a highly energy-intensive process

• An effective and efficient drying process can significantly

decrease total production costs
 Drying Mechanism

Mechanism of drying:
• Transport of energy into the wetted material
• Transport of liquid through pores to the
meniscus
• Evaporation at the meniscus
• Transport of vapor through pores
• Transport of vapor to surroundings
Drying Mechanism (2)

T, P
Po

Po : saturated vapor pressure

T : absolute temperature
Vmol : molar volume
r : meniscus radius
 Rate of Evaporation

Mass transport from wetted surface

kg : mass transport coefficient

Po : saturated vapor pressure at temperature T
P : vapor pressure in bulk

Heat transport

h : heat transport coefficient

T : bulk temperature
Ts : temperature at wetted surface
 : heat of evaporation at temperature T
 Dry and Wet Bulb Temperature

In case of water evaporation and the

process is adiabatic

flowing air

wet dry
H : absolute humidity
Hs : absolute humidity at saturation
 Relative Humidity and
Absolute Humidity
Absolute humidity, H
mass of water / mass of dry air

Relative humidity, RH

p : partial water pressure

ps : saturates water pressure = Po
P : total pressure
Mw : molecular weight of water
Ma : molecular weight of air
Psychrometric Chart
Drying Process
 Drying Process (2)

A : evaporation from wet external surface, heating rate >

evaporation rate
B : similar to A, but heating rate = evaporation rate, liquid at
the external surface may be replenished by interparticle
liquid  to cause shringkage
C : evaporation from menisci of liquid in pores begins. The
rate of transport < evaporation rate
D : evaporation from smaller pores and interparticle
distances. The remaining liquid can be removed above
boiling point of the liquid or long exposure of heating
Drying Process (3)
 Drying Shrinkage

• Shrinkage occurs as the interparticle liquid is removed

followed by the decrease in interparticle separation
• If the shrinkage is isotropic

linear shrinkage

• For common extruded and cast products, linear drying is

in the range of 1.5 – 4%
 Drying Shrinkage (2)

• Liquid concentration gradient (falling rate period) cause

differential shrinkage  tensile stress near surface
• If the stress exceeds the tensile strength, surface cracks
may form
• Unfired ceramics are normally brittle and are able to
sustain stress of only few 100 kPa without fracture
• Differential shrinkage also cause warping
(nonsymmetrical shrinkage)
• Defects during drying can also occur due to migration of
colloids, production of high pressure vapor and
insufficient permeability of the pores