THE FIRST

PHILIPPINE
REPUBLIC
Malolos Congress

The first Philippine Republic was inaugurated in Malolos,

Bulacan on January 21, 1899.
The Central government of the new Republic was
constituted in part as follows:

President- Emilio Aguinaldo

Department Secretaries- War – Baldomero Aguinaldo
Interior- Leandro Ibarra
Foreign Affairs- Cayetano Arellano (later replaced by
Mabini)
Finance- Mariano Trias
Justice- Gregorio Araneta
Welfare- Felipe Buencamino
Malolos Congress

A committee headed by Felipe Calderon and aided

by Cayetano Arellano, the constitution was drafted,
for the first time by representatives of the Filipino
people and it is the first republican constitution in
Asia. The constitution was inspired by the
constitutions of Mexico, Guatemala, Costa Rica,
Brazil, Belgium and France. After some minor
revisions (mainly due to the objections of Apolinario
Mabini), the final draft of the constitution was
presented to Aguinaldo. This paved the way to
launching the first Philippine Republic. It established
a democratic, republication government with three
branches - the Executive, Legislative and the
Judicial branches. It called for the separation of
church and state. The executive powers were to be
exercise by the president of the republic with the
help of his cabinet. Judicial powers were given to
the Supreme Court and other lower courts to be
created by law. The Chief justice of the Supreme
Court was to be elected by the legislature with the
concurrence of the President and his Cabinet.
Malolos Congress

On June 20, Aguinaldo issued a decree organizing

the judiciary, and on June 23, again upon Mabini’s
advice, major changes were promulgated and
implemented: change of government from
Dictatorial to Revolutionary; change of the
Executive title from Dictator to President; the
establishment of four major departments including
that of foreign affairs, navy and commerce; war
and public works, police and internal order; and
finance, agriculture and manufacture industries
(this was later expanded to six departments with
addition of welfare and treasury departments); the
appointment of delegates to the Revolutionary
Congress from the non-liberated provinces, to
ensure wider representation, and the creation of
the Executive Board of the Revolutionary
Committee at Hong Kong, which served as the
diplomatic and international propaganda arm of
the Republic. Two underlying principles motivated
the establishment of a revolutionary government: to
help the country achieve true independence and
pave the way towards the formation of a “true
republic”.
Malolos Congress

1. In September 29, 1898, ratified the

declaration of Philippine independence
held at Kawit, Cavite on June 12, 1898

2. Passage of a law that allowed the

Philippines to borrow P 20 million from banks
for government expenses

3. Establishment of the Universidad Literatura

de Filipinas and other schools

4. Drafting of the Philippine Constitution

5. Declaring war against the United States on

June 12, 1899
Malolos Congress

The Philippine National Anthem

Aguinaldo commissioned Julian Felipe, a

composer from Cavite province was asked to
write an an instrumental march for the
proclamation of independence ceremony.
The original title was "Marcha Filipina
Magdalo". This was later changed to "Marcha
Nacional Filipina". The lyrics was added in
August 1899 based on the poem titled
"Filipinas" by Jose Palma. The original lyrics
was written in Spanish, then to English (when
the Flag Law was abolished during the
American period) then later, was translated
to Tagalog, which underwent another
change of title to “Lupang Hinirang”, the
Philippine National Anthem.
TAGALOG
REPUBLIC
TAGALOG REPUBLIC

After Emilio Aguinaldo and his men were captured by

the US forces in 1901, General Macario Sakay, a
veteran Katipunan member, established in 1902 his
own Tagalog Republic (Tagalog: Repúbliká ng̃
Katagalugan) in the mountains of Morong (today, the
province of Rizal), and held the presidency with
Francisco Carreón as vice president. In April 1904,
Sakay issued a manifesto declaring Filipino right to
self-determination at a time when support for
independence was considered a crime by the
American colonial government.

President- Macario Sakay

Vice President- Francisco Carreon
Minister of War- Domingo Moriones
Minister of the Government- Alejandro Santiago
Minister of State- Nicolas Rivera
TAGALOG REPUBLIC

Around 1902, Sakay established the Tagalog Republic

somewhere in the mountains of Rizal. His first military
circulars and presidential orders as "President and
Commander-in-Chief" were issued in 1903. Sakay's
military circular No. 1 was dated May 5, 1903, and his
Presidential Order No. 1 was dated March 18, 1903.

In Sakay's military circular No. 7, dated June 19,

1903, the government of the Tagalog Republic
(called the "Republic of the Philippines") affirmed the
formation of an organized army. The army units were
composed of Kabohans (eight soldiers, equivalent to
a squad), Camilleros (nine soldiers), Companias (117
soldiers, equivalent to a company, and Batalions (801
soldiers, equivalent to battalion. However, in Sakay's
Second Manifesto, dated April 5, 1904, it said the
exact number of soldiers in the army could not be
ascertained. There are insufficient documents to
provide a basis for historians to speculate on the size
of the Republic's army, but these demonstrate that
Sakay's army existed and that it was led by officers
appointed and commissioned by Sakay himself.
TAGALOG REPUBLIC

In Sakay's presidential order No. 2, dated May 8,

1903, the government, in search of sources of
weapons to carry out its struggle against the
Americans, said that it was willing to confer
military rank on citizens who could turn over
firearms to the Presidential Office or any of the
headquarters under its command. Ranks would
be conferred by the following schedule: 10 to 15
firearms, rank of lieutenant; 16 to 25 firearms,
captain; 26 to 36 firearms, major; 40 to 50
firearms, colonel. In Sakay's military order No. 5,
dated May 25, 1903, the government assigned
the following color codes for the divisions of its
army: artillery (red), infantry (light blue), cavalry
(dark blue), engineering (dark brown), chief-of-
staff (dark green), sanitary (yellow), and marines
(gray).
TAGALOG REPUBLIC

According to General Leon Villafuerte, his,

Carreon's and Sakay's forces planned to kidnap
Alice Roosevelt Longworth, the daughter of
President Theodore Roosevelt, who was planning
to visit the Philippines. The plan was to trade her
to the Americans in exchange for the immediate
recognition of Philippine independence. The
kidnapping was not attempted since Longworth
postponed her trip by train to Baguio.
TAGALOG REPUBLIC

Surrender and Betrayal

In 1905, Filipino labour leader Dominador Gómez was

authorised by Governor-General Henry Clay Ide to
negotiate for the surrender of Sakay and his men.
Gómez met with Sakay at his camp and argued that
the establishment of a national assembly was being
held up by Sakay's intransigence, and that its
establishment would be the first step toward Filipino
independence. Sakay agreed to end his resistance on
the condition that a general amnesty be granted to
his men, that they be permitted to carry firearms, and
that he and his officers be permitted to leave the
country. Gómez assured Sakay that these conditions
would be acceptable to the Americans, and Sakay's
emissary, General León Villafuerte, obtained
agreement to them from the American Governor-
General.
TAGALOG REPUBLIC

Surrender and Betrayal

Sakay believed that the struggle had shifted to
constitutional means, and that the establishment of
the assembly was a means to win independence. As a
result, he surrendered on 20 July 1906, descending
from the mountains on the promise of an amnesty for
him and his officials, and the formation of a
Philippine Assembly composed of Filipinos that would
serve as the "gate of freedom". With Villafuerte,
Sakay travelled to Manila, where they were
welcomed and invited to receptions and banquets.
One invitation came from the Constabulary Chief,
American Colonel Harry H. Bandholtz; it was a trap.
Sakay and his principal lieutenants were disarmed
and arrested while the party was in progress.
At his trial, Sakay was accused of bandolerismo
"under the Brigandage Act of Nov. 12, 1902, which
interpreted all acts of armed resistance to American
rule as banditry." The American colonial Supreme
Court of the Philippines upheld the decision.Sakay
was convicted and sentenced to death, and hanged
on 13 September 1907.
TAGALOG REPUBLIC

“Death comes to all of us sooner or later, so I

will face the LORD Almighty calmly. But I
want to tell you that we are not bandits and
robbers, as the Americans have accused us,
but members of the revolutionary force that
defended our mother country, the Philippines!
Farewell! Long live the Republic and may our
independence be born in the future! Long live
the Philippines!”- Sakay, 1907.
UNITED STATES
MILITARY
GOVERNMENT
OF PHILLIPINE
ISLANDS
US MILITARY GOV’T

United States Military Government

Established- 14 August 1898

Constitutional Document- War powers authority of
the President
Capital- Manila

Head of State
President of the United States
• William McKinley (1898-1901)
• Theodore Roosevelt (1901-1902)
Head of Government
Military Governor of the Philippine Islands
• Wesley Merritt (1898)
• Elwell S. Otis (1898-1900)
• Arthur MacArthur, Jr. (1900-1901)
• Adna Chaffee (1901-1902)

Legislative - Martial Law (1898-1900)

Philippine Commission (1900-1902)

Military United States Armed Forces

US MILITARY GOV’T

The United States Military Government of the

Philippine Islands (Filipino: Pamahalaang Militar ng
Estados Unidos sa Kapuluan ng Pilipinas) was a
military government in the Philippines established by
the United States on August 14, 1898, a day after the
capture of Manila, with General Merritt acting as
military governor. During military rule (1898–1902),
the U.S. military commander governed the Philippines
under the authority of the U.S. president as
Commander-in-Chief of the United States Armed
Forces. After the appointment of a civil Governor-
General, the procedure developed that as parts of
the country were pacified and placed firmly under
American control, responsibility for the area would
be passed to the civilian.
General Merritt was succeeded by General Otis as
military governor, who in turn was succeeded by
General MacArthur. Major General Adna Chaffee was
the final military governor. The position of military
governor was abolished in July 1902, after which the
civil Governor-General became the sole executive
authority in the Philippines.
US MILITARY GOV’T

Under the military government, an American-

style school system was introduced, initially with
soldiers as teachers; civil and criminal courts
were reestablished, including a supreme court;
and local governments were established in towns
and provinces. The first local election was
conducted by General Harold W. Lawton on May
7, 1899, in Baliuag, Bulacan.
US MILITARY GOV’T

Schurman Commission

President McKinley had appointed a five-person

group headed by Dr. Jacob Schurman, president of
Cornell University, on January 20, 1899, to investigate
conditions in the islands and make
recommendations. The three civilian members of the
Philippine Commission arrived in Manila on March 4,
1899, a month after the Battle of Manila which had
begun armed conflict between U.S. and revolutionary
Filipino forces. The commission published a
proclamation containing assurances that the U.S. "...
is anxious to establish in the Philippine Islands an
enlightened system of government under which the
Philippine people may enjoy the largest measure of
home rule and the amplest liberty."
In the report that they issued to the president the
following year, the commissioners acknowledged
Filipino aspirations for independence; they declared,
however, that the Philippines was not ready for it.
US MILITARY GOV’T

Taft Commission
16 March 1900
The Second Philippine Commission (the Taft
Commission), appointed by McKinley on March
16, 1900, and headed by William Howard Taft,
was granted legislative as well as limited
executive powers. On September 1, the Taft
Commission began to exercise legislative
functions. Between September 1900 and August
1902, it issued 499 laws, established a judicial
system, including a supreme court, drew up a
legal code, and organized a civil service.The
1901 municipal code provided for popularly
elected presidents, vice presidents, and
councilors to serve on municipal boards. The
municipal board members were responsible for
collecting taxes, maintaining municipal
properties, and undertaking necessary
construction projects; they also elected
provincial governors.
US MILITARY GOV’T

Establishment of civil government

Governor General William Howard Taft
addressing the audience at the Philippine
Assembly in the Manila Grand Opera House
On March 3, 1901 the U.S. Congress passed the
Army Appropriation Act containing (along with
the Platt Amendment on Cuba) the Spooner
Amendment which provided the President with
legislative authority to establish of a civil
government in the Philippines. Up until this time,
the President been administering the Philippines
by virtue of his war powers.On July 1, 1901, civil
government was inaugurated with William H.
Taft as the Civil Governor. Later, on February 3,
1903, the U.S. Congress would change the title
of Civil Governor to Governor-General.
US MILITARY GOV’T

A highly centralized public school system

was installed in 1901, using English as the
medium of instruction. This created a heavy
shortage of teachers, and the Philippine
Commission authorized the Secretary of
Public Instruction to bring to the Philippines
600 teachers from the U.S.A. — the so-called
Thomasites. Free primary instruction that
trained the people for the duties of
citizenship and avocation was enforced by
the Taft Commission per instructions of
President McKinley. Also, the Catholic
Church was disestablished, and a
considerable amount of church land was
purchased and redistributed.
US MILITARY GOV’T

Organic Act enacted

1 July 1902
The Philippine Organic Act of July 1902 approved,
ratified, and confirmed McKinley's Executive Order
establishing the Philippine Commission, and also
stipulated that the bicameral Philippine Legislature
would be established composed of an elected lower
house, the Philippine Assembly and the appointed
Philippine Commission as the upper house. The act
also provided for extending the United States Bill of
Rights to the Philippines.
On July 2, 1902 the Secretary of War telegraphed
that the insurrection against the sovereign authority
of the U.S. having come to an end, and provincial
civil governments having been established, the
office of Military Governor was terminated. On July
4, Theodore Roosevelt, who had succeeded to the
U.S. Presidency after the assassination of President
McKinley on September 5, 1901 proclaimed a full
and complete pardon and amnesty to all persons in
the Philippine archipelago who had participated in
the conflict.
INSULAR
GOVERNMENT
OF THE
PHILLIPINE
ISLANDS
I N S U L A R G O V ’ T O F P H

The Insular Government of the Philippine Islands

was a territorial government of the United States
that was established in 1901 and was dissolved
in 1935. The Insular Government was preceded
by the United States Military Government of the
Philippine Islands and was followed by the
Commonwealth of the Philippines.

The Philippines were acquired by the United

States in 1898 as a result of the Spanish–
American War. In 1902, the United States
Congress passed the Philippine Organic Act,
which organized the government and served as
its basic law; this act provided for a governor-
general appointed by the president of the
United States, as well as a bicameral Philippine
Legislature with the appointed Philippine
Commission as the upper house and a fully
elected, fully Filipino elected lower house, the
Philippine Assembly.
I N S U L A R G O V ’ T O F P H

The term "insular" refers to the fact that the

government operated under the authority of the
U.S. Bureau of Insular Affairs. From 1901 to 1922,
the U.S. Supreme Court wrestled with the
constitutional status of these governments in
the Insular Cases. In Dorr v. United States
(1904), the court ruled that Filipinos did not
have a constitutional right to trial by jury. In the
Philippines itself, the term "insular" had limited
usage. On banknotes, postage stamps, and the
coat of arms, the government referred to itself
simply as the "Philippine Islands."
The 1902 Philippine Organic Act was replaced in
1916 by the Jones Law, which ended the
Philippine Commission and provided for both
houses of the Philippine Legislature to be
elected. In 1935, the Insular Government was
replaced by the Commonwealth. Commonwealth
status was intended to last ten years, during
which the country would be prepared for
independence.
COMMONWEALTH
GOVERNMENT
C O M M O N W E A L T H G O V ’ T

The Commonwealth era is the 10 year transitional

period in Philippine history from 1935 to 1945 in
preparation for independence from the United States
as provided for under the Philippine Independence
Act or more popularly known as the Tydings-McDuffie
Law. The Commonwealth era was interrupted when
the Japanese occupied the Philippines in January 2,
1942. The Commonwealth government, lead by
Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio S. Osmeña went into
exile in the U.S., Quezon died of tuberculosis while in
exile and Osmeña took over as president. At the same
time, the Japanese forces installed a puppet
government in Manila headed by Jose P. Laurel as
president. This government is known as the Second
Philippine Republic. On October 20, 1944, the Allied
forces led by Gen. Douglas MacArthur landed on the
island of Leyte to liberate the Philippines from the
Japanese. Japan formally surrendered in September
2, 1945.
C O M M O N W E A L T H G O V ’ T

After liberation, the Commonwealth government was

restored. Congress convened in its first regular
session on July 9, 1945. It was the first time the
people’s representatives have assembled since their
election on November 11, 1941. Manuel Roxas was
elected Senate President, and Elpidio Quirino was
chosen President Pro Tempore. Jose Zulueta was
speaker of the house, while Prospero Sanidad
became speaker pro Tempore. The first law of this
congress, enacted as commonwealth act 672,
ocentral bank of the Philippines. The commonwealth
deal also tackled rganized the the issue of
collaboration. In September 1945 the counter
intelligence corps presented the people who were
accused of having collaborated with, or given aid
to, the Japanese. Included were prominent Filipinos
who had been active in the puppet government that
the Japanese had been established. ”A Peoples
Court" was created to investigate and decide on
the issue.
C O M M O N W E A L T H G O V ’ T

The Philippine Bill of 1902 - Cooper Act

United States Congressman Henry Allen Cooper

sponsored the Philippine Bill of 1902, also known as
the Cooper Act. The bill proposed the creation and
administration of a civil government in the
Philippines. President Theodore Roosevelt signed it
into law in July 2, 1902.

Here are some of the more important provisions of

the Cooper Act:

▪ Ratification of all changes introduced in the

Philippine government by the president of the U.S.,
such as the establishment of the Philippine
Commission, the office of the civil governor and the
Supreme court
▪ Extension of the American Bill of Rights to the
Filipinos except the right of trial by jury
▪ Creation of bicameral legislative body, with the
Philippine Commission as the upper house and a
still-to-be-elected Philippine Assembly as the Lower
House
• ▪ Retention of the executive powers of the civil governor, who was
also president of the Philippine Commission
• ▪ Designation of the Philippine Commission as the legislating
authority for non-Christian tribes
• ▪ Retention of the Judicial powers of the Supreme court and other
lower courts
• ▪ Appointment of two Filipino resident commissioners who would
represent the Philippines in the US Congress but would not enjoy
voting rights
• ▪ Conservation of Philippine natural resources
• The bill contained 3 provisions that had to be fulfilled first before
the Philippine Assembly could be establishing these were the:
• ▪ Complete restoration of peace and order in the Philippines
• ▪ Accomplishment of a Nationwide census
• ▪ Two years of peace and order after the publication of the census
C O M M O N W E A L T H G O V ’ T

The Philippine Assembly

The assembly was inaugurated on October 16, 1907

at the Manila Grand Opera House, with US secretary
of War William Howard Taft as guest of honor. Sergio
Osmeña was elected Speaker while Manuel Quezon
was elected Majority Floor leader. The Recognition
of the Philippine Assembly paved the way for the
establishment of the bicameral Philippine
Legislature. The Assembly functioned as the lower
House, while the Philippine Commission served as
the upper house.

Resident Commissioners

Benito Legarda and Pablo Ocampo were the first

commissioners. Other Filipinos who occupied this
position included Manuel Quezon, Jaime de Veyra,
Teodoro Yangco, Isaro Gabaldon, and Camilo Osias.
C O M M O N W E A L T H G O V ’ T

The Jones Law

To further train the Filipinos in the art of government, the U.S.
Congress enacted the Jones Law on August 29, 1916. It was the
first official document that clearly promised the Philippine
independence, as stated in its preamble, as soon as a stable
government was established. The Jones Law or the Philippine
Autonomy act, Replace the Philippine bill of 1902 as the
framework of the Philippine government. It provide for the
creation of the executive powers. The vice governor general,
assisted by his Cabinet, would exercise executive powers. The
vice governor would act concurrently as the Secretary of
Education.

Creation of the Council of State

Upon the recommendation of Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio
Osmeña, Governor General Francis Burton Harrison issued an
executive order on October 16, 1981, creating the first Council
of State in the Philippines. It was the Council’s duty to advise
the governor general on matters such as the creation of policies
for administering government offices.

The Council held meetings once a week and whenever the

governor general called for one. It was composed of the
governor general, the department secretaries, the speaker of
the Lower House, and the Senate president. During Harrison’s
term, the executive and legislative branches of government
worked harmoniously with each other.
C O M M O N W E A L T H G O V ’ T

The Os-Rox Mission

One delegation, however, that met with partial

success was the Os-Rox Mission, so called because it
was headed by Sergio Osmeña and Manuel Roxas.
The Os-Rox group went to the United States in 1931
and was able to influence the U.S. Congress to pass
a pro-independence bill by Representative Butter
Hare, Senator Henry Hawes, and Senator Bronso
Cutting. The Hare-Hawes-Cutting Law provided for a
10-year transition period before the United States
would recognize Philippine independence. U.S.
President Herbert Hoover did not sign the bill; but
both Houses of Congress ratified it. When the Os-Rox
Mission presented the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Law to
the Philippine Legislature, it was rejected by a the
American High Commissioner representing the US
president in the country and the Philippine Senate,
specifically the provision that gave the U.S.
president the right to maintain land and other
properties reserved for military use. Manuel Quezon
was tasked to head another independence mission
to the united States.
C O M M O N W E A L T H G O V ’ T

The Tydings-McDuffie Law

In December 1933, Manuel L. Quezon returned

to the Philippines from the United States with a
slightly amended version of the Hare-Hawes-
Cutting bill authored by Senator Milliard Tydings
and representative McDuffie. President Franklin
Delano Roosevelt, the new U.S. president,
signed it into law on March 24, 1934. The
Tydings-McDuffie Act (officially the Philippine
Independence Act of the United States
Congress; Public Law 73-127) or more popularly
known as the The Tydings-McDuffie Law
provided for the establishment of the
Commonwealth government for a period of ten
years preparatory to the granting of
Independence.
JAPANESE
OCCUPATION OF
THE PHILIPPINES
J A P A N E S E O C C U P A T I O N

In accordance the instructions of President Manuel Quezon to

Jorge Vargas, the Filipino officials in Manila were told to enter
into agreements and compromises with the Japanese to
mitigate the sufferings of the people under the iron -clad rule of
the Japanese. On January 23, 1942 the Philippine Executive
Commission was established, with Vargas as chairman. the
following was appointed as department heads: Benigno Aquino,
Sr., interior; Antonio de las Alas, finance; Jose P. Laurel,
justice; Claro M. Recto, education, health, and public welfare;
and Quintin Paredes, public works and communication; Jose
Yulo was named Chief Justice of the Supreme court.
The following month, an election was held for members of The
Preparatory Commission for Philippine Independence (PCPI). The
purpose of PCPI is to draw up a constitution for a free
Philippines. Jose Laurel became its head. Against the will of the
PCPI delegates the new Constitution was finalized on July 10,
1943. Two months later it was ratified by the KALIBAPI, which
was the only political party allowed to exist at that time.
KALIBAPI is the acronym for "Kapisanan sa Paglilingkod sa
Bagong Pilipinas".

The new constitution, which noticeably lacked a bill of rights

contained 12 articles lifted from the 1935 constitution that
fitted the wishes of the Japanese. It was meant to be in effect
only temporarily, while the Philippines still in chaos. After the
war, a new constitution would again be drafted for the new
Philippine Republic.
SECOND
REPUBLIC
S E C O N D R E P U B L I C

known as the Japanese-sponsored Philippine Republic,

was a puppet state established on October 14, 1943,
during the Japanese occupation.

President Manuel L. Quezon declared the national capital

Manila an "open city", and left it under the rule of Jorge
B. Vargas, as mayor. The Japanese entered the city on
January 2, 1942, and established it as the capital. Japan
fully captured the Philippines on May 6, 1942, after the
Battle of Corregidor.

General Masaharu Homma decreed the dissolution of the

Commonwealth of the Philippines and established the
Philippine Executive Commission, a caretaker
government, with Vargas as its first chairman in January
1942. KALIBAPI– Kapisanan sa Paglilingkod sa Bagong
Pilipinas (Tagalog for the "Association for Service to the
New Philippines") was formed by Proclamation No. 109 of
the Philippine Executive Commission (Komisyong
Tagapagpaganap ng Pilipinas), a piece of legislation
passed on December 8, 1942, banning all existing
political parties and creating the new governing alliance.
Its first director-general was Benigno Aquino, Sr. The pro-
Japanese Ganap Party, which saw the Japanese as the
saviors of the archipelago, was absorbed into the
KALIBAPI.
S E C O N D R E P U B L I C

Cabinet
President José P. Laurel 1943–1945

SpeakerBenigno S. Aquino 1943–1945

Ministries involved Jorge B. Vargas 1943-1945

Minister of Agriculture and Commerce Rafael Alunan 1943–1945

Minister of Health, Labor and Public Instructions Emiliano Tria Tirona
1943–1945
Minister of Finance Antonio de las Alas 1943–1945
Minister of Foreign AffairsClaro M. Recto 1943–1945
Minister of Justice Teofilo Sison 1943–1945
Minister of Education Camilo Osías 1943–1945
Minister of Public Works and Communication Quintin Paredes
1943–1945
S E C O N D R E P U B L I C

Greater East Asia Conference

The conference and the formal declaration adhered to on
November 6 was little more than a propaganda gesture
designed to rally regional support for the next stage of the
war, outlining the ideals of which it was fought. However, the
Conference marked a turning point in Japanese foreign
policy and relations with other Asian nations. The defeat of
Japanese forces on Guadalcanal (in present-day Solomon
Islands) and an increasing awareness of the limitations to
Japanese military strength led the Japanese civilian
leadership to realize that a framework based on
cooperation, rather than colonial domination would enable
a greater mobilization of manpower and resources against
the resurgent Allied Forces. It was also the start of efforts to
create a framework that would allow for some form of
diplomatic compromise should the military solution fail
altogether. However these moves came too late to save the
Empire, which surrendered to the Allies less than two years
after the conference.
S E C O N D R E P U B L I C

Problems of the Republic

During his term in office, Laurel was faced with various

problems that the country was experiencing, such as the
following:

Shortages of food, clothing, oil, and other necessities.

Heavy Japanese military presence throughout the entire
region.
Japanese control of transportation, media, and
communications.
Laurel attempted to show that the independence of the
republic was genuine by rectifying these probable
S E C O N D R E P U B L I C

The Japanese allowed Tagalog to be the

national language of the Philippines. To this
end, a pared-down, 1,000-word version of the
language was promoted to be learned rapidly
by those not yet versed in the language.

Love for labor was encouraged, as seen by the

massive labor recruitment programs by the
KALIBAPI by mid-1943. Propagation of both
Filipino and Japanese cultures were
conducted. Schools were reopened, which had
an overall number of 300,000 students at its
peak.
S E C O N D R E P U B L I C

End of the Republic

On September 21, 1944, Laurel put the

Republic under Martial Law. On September
23, 1944, the Republic officially declared
war against the United States and United
Kingdom. Following the return of American -
led Allied forces, the government of the
Second Republic evacuated from Manila to
Baguio. The republic was formally dissolved
by Laurel in Tokyo on August 17, 1945 .