THE BRAIN

 Grayish-pink
Grayish-pink jellyjelly like
like organ
organ with
with many
many ridges
ridges and
and grooves
grooves
on
on its
its surface
surface
 Actual
Actual substance
substance of of the
the brain
brain consists
consists of of two
two type
type ofof cell:
cell:

 Nerve cell/neuron: functional unit of nervous
Nerve cell/neuron: functional unit of nervous system system

 Neuroglia/glia:
Neuroglia/glia: sustaining
sustaining and
and supporting
supporting the the neuron
neuron is is the
the
non-communicating
non-communicating glial glial cell
cell
 A
A network of blood vessels supplies
network of blood vessels supplies the the brain
brain with
with the
the vast
vast
quantities
quantities ofof oxygen
oxygen andand food
food that
that it
it requires.
requires. The
The human
human
brain
brain makes up only 2% of the total body weight , but
makes up only 2% of the total body weight , but it
it uses
uses
about 20% of the oxygen used by the entire
about 20% of the oxygen used by the entire body when at body when at
rest.
rest.
 The
The brain
brain can
can gogo without
without oxygen
oxygen forfor only
only three
three to
to five
five
minutes before serious damage
minutes before serious damage results. results.
 Weight
Weight of of human
human brain:
brain: aa newborn
newborn baby’s
baby’s brain
brain weighs
weighs less
less
than
than 0.5kg.by
0.5kg.by the the time
time aa person
person is is 66 years
years old,
old, the
the brain
brain
reaches its full weight of about 1.4
reaches its full weight of about 1.4 kgs. kgs.
THE BRAIN HAS THREE MAIN DIVISIONS : CEREBRUM, CEREBELLUM AND BRAIN STEM .

1. The cerebrum

 Makes
Makes up up about
about 85% 85% of of the
the weight
weight of of human
human brain
brain

 Cerebral
Cerebral cortex/ cortex: a thin layer of nerve cell bodies,
cortex/ cortex: a thin layer of nerve cell bodies,
forms
forms outmost
outmost partpart ofof the
the cerebrum
cerebrum

 sensory
sensory cortex:
cortex: some
some areas
areas of of the
the cortex
cortex called
called the
the sensory
sensory
cortex,
cortex, receive messages from the sense organs as well
receive messages from the sense organs as well as
as
messages
messages of touch and temperature from throughout the body.
of touch and temperature from throughout the body.

 Motor cortex: send out nerve impulses
Motor cortex: send out nerve impulses that control the that control the
movements
movements of of all
all the
the skeletal
skeletal muscles.
muscles.

 Association
Association cortex: largest portion of
cortex: largest portion of cortex
cortex ;; analyses,
analyses,
processes
processes and stores information and so makes
and stores information and so makes possible
possible all
all
our higher mental abilities, such as thinking,
our higher mental abilities, such as thinking, speaking and speaking and
remembering
remembering

 Fissure(large
Fissure(large groove)
groove) :: divides
divides thethe cerebrum
cerebrum intointo halves
halves
called
called the left cerebral hemisphere and the right cerebral
the left cerebral hemisphere and the right cerebral
hemisphere
hemisphere

 Corpus
Corpus callosum:
callosum: hemispheres
hemispheres are are connected
connected by by bundles
bundles ofof
nerve fibers, the largest of which is the corpus
nerve fibers, the largest of which is the corpus callosum callosum

 Lobes:
Lobes: divided
divided intointo four
four lobes
lobes

 The frontal lobe at the
The frontal lobe at the front front

 The
The temporal
temporal lobelobe atat lower
lower sideside

 The parietal lobe in the
The parietal lobe in the middle middle

 The
The occipital
occipital lobe
lobe atat the
the earear

 Fissures
Fissures in the cerebral cortex form
in the cerebral cortex form thethe boundaries
boundaries between
between
lobes.
lobes. The two major fissures are the central fissure and
The two major fissures are the central fissure and
lateral
lateral fissure.
fissure.
2.THE CEREBELLUM
Most

Most responsible
responsible for for balance,
balance, posture
posture
and
and the
the coordination
coordination of of movement
movement ;;
3.The Brain Stem
located  A
A stalk
stalk like
like structure
structure that
that connects
connects the the cerebrum
cerebrum withwith spinal
spinal cord
cord ..
located below
below the the back
back part
part ofof the
the
cerebrum  Medulla
Medulla oblongata/medulla:
oblongata/medulla: bottom bottom partpart ofof the
the brain
brain stem,
stem, medulla
medulla has has
cerebrum
nerve centers that control breathing, heartbeat and many
nerve centers that control breathing, heartbeat and many other vital body other vital body
The

The cerebellum
cerebellum consists
consists of
of aa large
large processes.
processes. TheThe major
major sensory
sensory andand motor
motor pathways
pathways between
between the the body
body and
and
mass
mass of closely packed folia( leaf like
of closely packed folia( leaf like cerebrum cross over as they pass through the medulla. Each cerebral
cerebrum cross over as they pass through the medulla. Each cerebral
bundles of nerve cells).
bundles of nerve cells). hemisphere
hemisphere thus thus controls
controls the
the opposite
opposite side side of
of the
the body.
body.
Vermis:

Vermis: it it has
has aa right
right and
and left Pons:
Pons: just above the medulla is the pons, which connects the
just above the medulla is the pons, which connects the hemisphere
hemisphere of

left of
hemisphere the
the cerebellum. The pons also contains nerve fibers that link the cerebellum
cerebellum. The pons also contains nerve fibers that link the
hemisphere , which are joined by
, which are joined by aa and
cerebellum
finger and the
the cerebrum.
cerebrum. Above Above thethe pons
pons lies
lies the
the midbrain
midbrain .. Nerve
Nerve centre
centre inin the
the
finger shaped
shaped structure
structure called
called Vermis.
Vermis. midbrain help control movements of the eyes and the size of the pupils.
midbrain help control movements of the eyes and the size of the pupils.
Nerve pathways connect the right
 Nerve pathways connect the right Thalamus

Thalamus and and Hypothalamus:
Hypothalamus: at at the
the upper
upper endend ofof the
the brain
brain stemstem are
are the
the
half
half of
of the
the cerebellum
cerebellum with with the
the left
left thalamus
thalamus and the hypothalamus. There are actually two thalami, one on
and the hypothalamus. There are actually two thalami, one on the
the
cerebral
cerebral hemisphere and the right side
hemisphere and the right side left side of the brain stem and one on the right side. Each
left side of the brain stem and one on the right side. Each thalamus receives thalamus receives
of the body.
of the body. nerve impulses
nerve impulses from from various
various parts
parts ofof the
the body
body and
and routes
routes themthem to to the
the
appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex. The thalami
appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex. The thalami also relay impulsesalso relay impulses
Pathways

Pathways from from the
the left
left half
half connect
connect from
from one
one part
part of of the
the brain
brain to
to another.
another. TheThe hypothalamus
hypothalamus regulates
regulates body
body
with
with the right cerebral hemisphere and
the right cerebral hemisphere and temperature,
temperature, hunger and other internal conditions. It also controls
hunger and other internal conditions. It also controls thethe
the left side of the body.
the left side of the body. activity
activity of
of nearby
nearby pituitary
pituitary gland,
gland, the
the master
master gland
gland ofof the
the body.
body.
 Recticular
Recticular formation: a network of nerve fibers called the recticular
formation: a network of nerve fibers called the recticular
formation
formation lies deep within the brain stem. The recticular formation helps
lies deep within the brain stem. The recticular formation helps
regulate
regulate the
the brain’s
brain’s level;
level; of
of awareness.
awareness. SensorySensory messages
messages that that pass
pass through
through
the brain stem stimulate the recticular formation, which
the brain stem stimulate the recticular formation, which in turn stimulates in turn stimulates
activity
activity and
and alertness
alertness throughout
throughout the the cerebral
cerebral cortex.
cortex.
THE SPINAL CORD : IS A CABLE OF NEURONS THAT EXTENDS FROM THE NECK ABOUT TWO THIRDS OF THE WAY DOWN THE BACKBONE. THE
BACKBONE SURROUNDS AND PROTECTS THE SPINAL CORD. THE SPINAL CORD CONTAINS PATHWAYS THAT CARRY SENSORY INFORMATION TO THE BRAIN .

THE NEURON : HAS THREE BASIC PARTS, THE CELL BODY, THE AXON AND THE DENDRITES. A THIN NERVE MEMBRANE
SURROUNDS THE ENTIRE CELL.
THE
THE DENDRITES
DENDRITES:: OF
OF A
A NEURON
NEURON ARE
ARE BRANCHING,
BRANCHING, TUBE
TUBE LIKE
LIKE
The
The Cell
Cell Body:
Body: EXTENSIONS
EXTENSIONS OFOF THE
THE CELL
CELL BODY.
BODY.
DENDRITES ARE SPECIALIZED STRUCTURES FOR RECEIVING
 aa ball
ball shaped
shaped structure
structure about
about 0.025
0.025 millimeter
millimeter wide.
wide.
DENDRITES ARE SPECIALIZED STRUCTURES FOR RECEIVING
IMPULSES
IMPULSES ,, MOSTLY
MOSTLY FROM
FROM THE
THE AXON
AXON OF
OF ANOTHER
ANOTHER NEURON.
NEURON.
 A
A centre for receiving and sending nerve impulses, is
centre for receiving and sending nerve impulses, is also
also DENDRITES
DENDRITES AND AXON DO NOT QUITE TOUCH EACH
AND AXON DO NOT QUITE TOUCH EACH OTHER.
OTHER. IN
IN
responsible ALMOST ALL CASES, THEY ARE SEPARATED BY AN EXTREMELY
responsible for making proteins and using energy for the
for making proteins and using energy for the ALMOST ALL CASES, THEY ARE SEPARATED BY AN EXTREMELY
NARROW
maintenance NARROW SPACE
SPACE CALLED
CALLED THE
THE SYNAPTIC
SYNAPTIC CLEFT,
CLEFT, OVER
OVER WHICH
WHICH NERVE
maintenance and and growth
growth of of the
the nerves
nerves cell.
NERVE
cell. IMPULSES
IMPULSES ARE
ARE TRANSMITTED.
TRANSMITTED. THESE
THESE PLACES
PLACES WHERE
WHERE ONE
ONE NEURON
NEURON
 The
The vast majority of neuron cell bodies are
vast majority of neuron cell bodies are within
within the
the COMMUNICATES
COMMUNICATES WITH
WITH ANOTHER
ANOTHER ARE
ARE CALLED
CALLED SYNAPSES
SYNAPSES..
central
central nervous system where incoming messages are
nervous system where incoming messages are
combined
combined andand outgoing
outgoing messages
messages are are produced.
produced.
 The
The few
few neuron
neuron cell
cell bodies
bodies outside
outside the
the central
central nervous
nervous
system
system are grouped into clusters called ganglia.
are grouped into clusters called ganglia. The
The best
best
known ganglia are in the autonomic nervous
known ganglia are in the autonomic nervous system system
The
The Axon:
Axon:
 Also
Also called
called the
the nerve
nerve fibre,
fibre, is
is aa tube
tube like
like extension
extension aa
neuron
neuron cell
cell body.
body. The
The axon
axon is
is specialized
specialized toto carry
carry
messages.
messages.
 The
The structures
structures commonly
commonly called
called nerves
nerves are
are actually
actually
bundles
bundles of axons lying next to one another in aa cordlike
of axons lying next to one another in cordlike
formation.
formation.
 Some
Some axons
axons are
are covered
covered byby aa sheath
sheath of
of aa white,
white, fatty
fatty
substance
substance called myelin. The myelin increases the
called myelin. The myelin increases the speed
speed
of impulses along the axons. Myelin also causes
of impulses along the axons. Myelin also causes the the
distinction
distinction between
between thethe grey
grey matter
matter and
and white
white matter
matter inin
the nervous system .grey matter consists largely
the nervous system .grey matter consists largely of of
unmyelinted
unmyelinted axons
axons and
and neuron
neuron cell
cell bodies.
bodies.
 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
 Hormones:
Hormones: many many aspects
aspects of
of an
an animal’s
animal’s metabolism
metabolism are are regulated
regulated not
not by
by the
the nervous
nervous system,
system, but
but by
by
specific
specific chemical
chemical signals
signals known
known as as hormones
hormones whichwhich are
are circulated
circulated inin the
the blood
blood stream.
stream.
 It
It is clear that the integration of the two systems is much greater than was formerly envisaged
is clear that the integration of the two systems is much greater than was formerly envisaged and
and inin
vertebrates
vertebrates is is accomplished
accomplished through
through the the pituitary
pituitary gland.
gland. Secretions
Secretions of of this
this gland
gland regulate
regulate almost
almost all
all other
other
endocrine glands and the secretions of the pituitary are either produced in the central
endocrine glands and the secretions of the pituitary are either produced in the central nervous system with nervous system with
which
which it it is
is directly
directly connected
connected or or are
are controlled
controlled by by central
central nervous
nervous system
system ..
 Most
Most endocrine
endocrine glands
glands are
are organs
organs and
and produce
produce oneone or
or more
more hormones.
hormones. Some
Some of of these
these glands
glands consist
consist ofof two
two
parts
parts , each of which secretes different hormones. Some endocrine glands are simply made up of tissue that
, each of which secretes different hormones. Some endocrine glands are simply made up of tissue that
forms part of another organ, such as the kidneys, pancreas, small intestine
forms part of another organ, such as the kidneys, pancreas, small intestine and stomach. and stomach.
 Pituitary
Pituitary Gland:
Gland:

 most
most important
important endocrine
endocrine glands
glands

 Consist
Consist of of two
two parts:
parts: anterior
anterior lobe
lobe and
and posterior
posterior lobe
lobe

 Master
Master Gland:
Gland: the the anterior
anterior lobe
lobe releases
releases thatthat regulates
regulates the
the secretions
secretions of
of many
many other
other endocrine
endocrine glands.
glands. For
For
this reason, the pituitary is sometimes called the
this reason, the pituitary is sometimes called the master gland.master gland.

 The
The anterior
anterior lobe
lobe ofof the
the pituitary
pituitary is
is controlled
controlled by by aa part
part of
of the
the brain
brain known
known as as the
the hypothalamus.
hypothalamus. TheThe
hypothalamus secrets releasing hormones, causes the anterior lobe to discharge
hypothalamus secrets releasing hormones, causes the anterior lobe to discharge its hormones. The its hormones. The
hypothalamus
hypothalamus consistsconsists ofof nervous
nervous tissue.
tissue. It
It forms
forms the
the main
main linklink between
between thethe body’s
body’s endocrine
endocrine an
an nervous
nervous
system.
system.
ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND FUNCTIONS
Gland Secretion Function of secretion
1.Adrenal gland of Glucocorticoids, particularly cortisol Helps regulate metabolism, the process by which the body turns
cortex food into energy and living tissue. Help the body adjust to stress.
Mineralocorticoids, particularly aldosterone Stimulate kidneys to retain sodium and exercise potassium
Sex hormones, particularly androgens Stimulate development of sexual characteristic, particularly in
males

2.Adrenal gland of Adrenaline Prepares the body to deal with stress. Increases amount in the
medulla blood. increases heart rate and blood pressure.
Nor adrenaline Helps coordinate the body’s response to stress. Causes blood
vessels to contract and increases blood pressure.

3.Hypothalamus Adrenocorticotropin-releasing hormone Stimulates secretion of ACTH by anterior pituitary

Growth hormone-releasing hormone
Gonadotropin- releasing hormone
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
Prolactin-inhibiting hormone
Oxytocin
Vasopressin
Somatostatin
Stimulates secretion of growth hormone by anterior pituitary
Stimulates secretion of FSH & LH by anterior pituitary
Stimulates secretion of thyrotrophic by anterior pituitary
Controls secretion of prolactin by anterior pituitary
stimulates muscles of uterus to contract during labour
Stimulates release of milk by mammary gland
Stimulates kidneys to retain water. Causes blood vessels to contract
Inhibits secretion of prolactin by anterior pituitary

4.Kidneys Erythropoietin Stimulates production of RBC

Ovaries( female Oestrogens Stimulates development of female sex organs and sexual
only) characteristics. Stimulate female sexual behavior and regulate
menstruation
Progesterone Acts with oestrogens to regulate menstruation
Relaxin Causes birth canal to widen

5.Pancreas( islets of Insulin Decreases amount of sugar in the blood

Langrehans) glucagon Increases amount of sugar in the blood
6Parathyroid glands parathormone Increases amount of calcium in the blood. Decreases amount of
phosphate in the blood
7.Pineal gland Melatonin Lightens skin colour in some animals. Function in human begins
uncertain. May help regulate sexual development and menstruation

8.Anterior lobe of Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Stimulates secretion of various hormones by adrenal cortex
Pituitary gland
CONT’D
Gland Secretion Function of secretion
9.Anterior lobe of Pituitary gland Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Stimulates secretion of various hormones by
adrenal cortex
Follicle-stimulating hormone( FSH) Stimulates growth of ovarian follicles in females
and semeniferous tubules in males
Luteinizing hormone (LH) Stimulates secretion of sex hormones by ovaries
and testes
Thyrotropin or thyroid-stimulating hormone Stimulates secretion of thyroxin by thyroid gland
(TSH)
Prolactin Stimulates production of milk by mammary
glands
Growth hormone( GH ) Stimulates general body growth. Helps regulate
metabolism
Endorphins Act on the central nervous system
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone ( MSH ) Regulates amount of pigment in skin of certain
animals. Function in human begins unknown
10.Posterior lobe of pituitary gland Oxytocin stimulates muscles of uterus to contract during
labour .Stimulates release of milk by mammary
gland
Vasopressin Stimulates kidneys to retain water. Causes blood
vessels to contract
11.Small intestine Secretin Stimulates secretion digestive enzymes by
pancreas
Cholecystokinin ( pancreozymin) Stimulates release of bile by gall bladder and of
digestive enzymes by pancreas
Gastric inhibitory peptide Inhibits secretion of gastric juices and
contraction of stomach
Vasoactive intestinal peptide Stimulates secretion of water and electrolytes by
the intestine. Causes blood vessels to dilate .

12.stomach Gastrin stimulates secretion of digestive enzymes and

hydrochloric acid by stomach
13.3Testicles( males only) Androgenes, particularly testosterone Stimulates development of male sex organs and
sexual characteristics. Stimulates male sexual
behavior.
EXOCRINE GLANDS: UNLIKE ENDOCRINE GLANDS, DO NOT EMPTY THEIR SECRETIONS INTO THE BLOOD. INSTEAD THEIR
PRODUCTS ARE CARRIED BY DUCTS TO THE SURFACES OF THE SKIN OR OTHER ORGANS. CERTAIN EXOCRINE GLANDS
SECRETE SCENTS KNOWN AS PHEROMONES WHICH PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN COMMUNICATION AMONG INDIVIDUALS IN
MANY ANIMAL SPECIES. THE ROLE IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR LIMITED.

Gland Secretion Functions

Lacrimal Tears Moisten the eyes
Liver Bile Aids digestion and absorption of fats
Mammary glands( function in females only) Milk nourishes nursing babies

Mucous glands mucus Moistens and lubricates mucous membranes

Pancreas Amylase Helps digest starches
Lipase Helps digest fats
Trypsin Helps digest starch
Salivary glands Saliva Moistens and softens food and begins chemical
breakdown of starches
Sebaceous glands Sebum Lubricates skin and hair
Seminal Vesicles,urethrals And Prostate Gland Seminal fluid Nourishes sperm and promotes movement of
sperm through urethra
Stomach and intestine Digestive enzymes Help digest food
Sweat glands Sweat Helps cool skin