IC

FUNDATM E N TAL S
GROUP 1
BSCE 2C
DIFFERENT NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Topology in Network Design
Think of a topology as a network's virtual shape or
structure. This shape does not necessarily correspond to the
actual physical layout of the devices on the network. For
example, the computers on a home LAN may be arranged in a
circle in a family room, but it would be highly unlikely to
find a ring topology there.

Network topologies are categorized into the following

basic types:

• bus
• ring
• star
• tree
• mesh

More complex networks can be built as hybrids of two or

more of the above basic topologies.
Bus Topology

Bus networks (not to be confused with the system bus of a

computer) use a common backbone to connect all devices. A single
cable, the backbone functions as a shared communication medium that
devices attach or tap into with an interface connector. A device
wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a
broadcast message onto the wire that all other devices see, but
only the intended recipient actually accepts and processes the
message.
Ethernet bus topologies are relatively easy to install and don't
require much cabling compared to the alternatives. 10Base-2
("ThinNet") and 10Base-5 ("ThickNet") both were popular Ethernet
cabling options many years ago for bus topologies. However, bus
networks work best with a limited number of devices. If more than a
few dozen computers are added to a network bus, performance
problems will likely result. In addition, if the backbone cable
fails, the entire network effectively becomes unusable.
Ring Topology

In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors

for communication purposes. All messages travel through a ring
in the same direction (either "clockwise" or
"counterclockwise"). A failure in any cable or device breaks
the loop and can take down the entire network. To implement a
ring network, one typically uses FDDI, SONET, or Token Ring
technology. Ring topologies are found in some office buildings
or school campuses.
Star Topology

Many home networks use the star topology. A star network

features a central connection point called a "hub" that may be
a hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub
with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet. Compared to the
bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but
a failure in any star network cable will only take down one
computer's network access and not the entire LAN. (If the hub
fails, however, the entire network also fails.)
Tree Topology

Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies

together onto a bus. In its simplest form, only hub devices
connect directly to the tree bus, and each hub functions as the
"root" of a tree of devices. This bus/star hybrid approach
supports future expandability of the network much better than a
bus (limited in the number of devices due to the broadcast
traffic it generates) or a star (limited by the number of hub
connection points) alone.
Mesh Topology

Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike

each of the previous topologies, messages sent on a mesh
network can take any of several possible paths from source to
destination. (Recall that even in a ring, although two cable
paths exist, messages can only travel in one direction.) Some
WANs, most notably the Internet, employ mesh routing. A mesh
network in which every device connects to every other is called
a full mesh. As shown in the illustration below, partial mesh
networks also exist in which some devices connect only
indirectly to others.
NETWORKING DEVICES/CABLES
NETWORK DEVICES

• Network Card

Often referred to NIC (network interface card), these are

used with PC’s, Servers and printers to allow communication on
the network take place. Every single NIC has an address burned
onto a chip that sits on the card. This address is known as a
hardware or MAC address.
• Hub

The most basic piece of networking equipment is a hub. A

hub simply allows several networking devices to speak to each
other. Each device plugs into a port on the hub. The simplest
network you can build will be with some PC’s connecting into a
hub. Hubs have no memory or hard drive so they can never
remember which device is plugged into which port. This causes a
lot of unnecessary traffic to pass on the network.
• Switch

A drawback of using hubs is that a hub can never keep a

record of which PC is plugged into which port. For this reason,
every time one PC wants to speak to another, every single PC
plugged into the hub gets the message as well. This is known as
a broadcast.

Switches build up a list of which PC’s are connected to

which ports allowing the available bandwidth to be used a lot
more efficiently. If a PC wants to speak to another PC that is
not directly connected to it, the switch will send out a
broadcast to find out where on the network the PC actually is.
Switches and hubs are designed to forward broadcast traffic.
• Router

A router can be considered to be a large directory of

networks. Rather than concerning itself about which PC is
where, a routers job is to find out where different networks
are. It then sends the traffic via the best path, be it the
fastest, most reliable or shortest. If the router does not know
how to get to its intended destination it will either drop the
packet or forward it to another router who should know how to
get there.

It is important to remember that by default, routers do

not forward broadcasts. If they did we would find that most
networks including the internet would be extremely slow because
of all the broadcasts passing across them.
• Bridge

A data-link bridge is a device that connects two similar

networks or divides one network into two. It takes frames from
one network and puts them on the other, and vice versa. As it
does this, it regenerates the signal strength of the frames,
allowing data to travel further. In this sense, a data-link
bridge incorporates the functionality of a repeater, which also
regenerates frames to extend a LAN. But a bridge does more than
a repeater. A bridge is more intelligent than a repeater. It
can look at each frame and decide on which of the two networks
it belongs. Repeaters simply forward every frame from one
network to the other, without looking at them.

A bridge looks at each frame as it passes, checking the

source and destination addresses. If a frame coming from
Station 1 on LAN A is destined for Station 5 on LAN B, the
bridge will pass the frame onto LAN B. If a frame coming from
Station 1 on LAN A is destined for Station 3 on LAN A, the
bridge will not forward it; that is, it will filter it.
 Bridges know which frames belong where by looking at the
source and destination addresses in the Medium Access Control
(MAC) layer information carried in the frame. The MAC layer,
which is part of the second layer of OSI Model, defines how
frames get on the network without bumping into each other. It
also contains information about where the frame came from and
where it should go. Because bridges use this level of
information, they have several advantages over other forms of
interconnecting LANs.
• Repeaters

Repeaters connect multiple network segments together. They

amplify the incoming signal received from one segment and send
it on to all other attached segments. This allows the distance
limitations of network cabling to be extended. There are limits
on the number of repeaters which can be used. The repeater
counts as a single node in the maximum node count associated
with the Ethernet standard [30 for thin coax].

Repeaters also allow isolation of segments in the event of

failures or fault conditions. Disconnecting one side of a
repeater effectively isolates the associated segments from the
network. Using repeaters simply allows you to extend your
network distance limitations. It does not give you any more
bandwidth or allow you to transmit data faster.
• Gateway

A node on a network that

serves as an entrance to another
network. In enterprises, the gateway
is the computer that routes the
traffic from a workstation to the
outside network that is serving the
Web pages. In homes, the gateway is
the ISP that connects the user to
the internet. In enterprises, the
gateway node often acts as a proxy
server and a firewall. The gateway
is also associated with both a
router, which use headers and
forwarding tables to determine where
packets are sent, and a switch,
which provides the actual path for
the packet in and out of the
gateway.

A computer system located on

earth that switches data signals and
voice signals between satellites and
terrestrial networks.

An earlier term for router,

though now obsolete in this sense as
router is commonly used.
• Firewall

A system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or

from a private network. Firewalls can be implemented in both
hardware and software, or a combination of both. Firewalls are
frequently used to prevent unauthorized Internet users from
accessing private networks connected to the Internet,
especially intranets. All messages entering or leaving the
Intranet pass through the firewall, which examines each message
and blocks those that do not meet the specified security
criteria.
NETWORK CABLE

Cable is the medium through which information usually

moves from one network device to another. There are several
types of cable which are commonly used with LANs. In some
cases, a network will utilize only one type of cable, other
networks will use a variety of cable types. The type of cable
chosen for a network is related to the network's topology,
protocol, and size. Understanding the characteristics of
different types of cable and how they relate to other aspects
of a network is necessary for the development of a successful
network.

The following sections discuss the types of cables used in

networks and other related topics.

· Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

· Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
· Coaxial Cable
· Fiber Optic Cable
· Wireless LANs
· Installing Cable - Some Guidelines
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties: shielded and

unshielded. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular and
is generally the best option for school networks (See fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Unshielded Twisted Pair

 The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to
extremely high-speed cable. The cable has four pairs of wires
inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with a different
number of twists per inch to help eliminate interference from
adjacent pairs and other electrical devices. The EIA/TIA
(Electronic Industry Association/Telecommunication Industry
Association) has established standards of UTP and rated five
categories of wire.

Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair

TYPE USE
CATEGORY 1 Voice Only (Telephone Wire)
CATEGORY 2 Data to 4 Mbps (Local Talk)
CATEGORY 3 Data to 10 Mbps (Ethernet)
CATEGORY 4 Data to 20 Mbps (16 Mbps Token Ring)
CATEGORY 5 Data to 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet)
 One difference between the different categories of UTP is
the tightness of the twisting of the copper pairs. The tighter
the twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate and
the greater the cost per foot. Buy the best cable you can
afford; most schools purchase Category 3 or Category 5.
Category 5 cable is highly recommended.

If you are designing a 10 Mbps Ethernet network and are

considering the cost savings of buying Category 3 wire instead
of Category 5, remember that the Category 5 cable will provide
more "room to grow" as transmission technologies increase. Both
category 3 and category 5 UTP have a maximum segment length of
100 meters. In Florida, Category 5 cable is required for
retrofit grants. 10BaseT refers to the specifications for
unshielded twisted pair cable (category 3, 4, or 5) carrying
Ethernet signals.
• Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector

The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling

is an RJ-45 connector. This is a plastic connector that looks
like a large telephone-style connector (See fig. 2). A slot
allows the RJ-45 to be inserted only one way. RJ stands for
Registered Jack, implying that the connector follows a standard
borrowed from the telephone industry. This standard designates
which wire goes with each pin inside the connector.

•Unshielded Twisted Pair cable used

in Category 5 looks like:

Fig. 2 RJ-45 connector

Category 5 cable uses 8 wires. The length of exposed wires is very
critical; the standard limits this to less than 1/2" an inch. The
various jack connectors look like:

The patch cord which connects the workstation to the wall jack looks like:

In 10BaseT, each PC is wired back to a central hub using its own cable.
There are limits imposed on the length of drop cable from the PC network
card to the jack, the length of the horizontal wiring, and from the jack
to the wiring closet.

This is obviously a physical STAR configuration, in that

each PC is wired back to a central point (the Hub).
Ethernet 10Base-T wiring specifies an 8 position
jack, but uses only two pairs.

TWISTED PAIR ETHERNET HORIZONTAL WIRING (Solid 24Awg)

PIN COLOR SIGNAL

1 White/orange Tx data +
2 Orange/white Tx data -
3 White/green Rx data +
4 Blue/white --
5 White/Blue --
6 Green/white Rx data -
7 White/brown --
8 Brown/white --
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to
radio and electrical frequency interference. Shielded twisted
pair (STP) is suitable for environments with electrical
interference; however, the extra shielding can make the cables
quite bulky. Shielded twisted pair is often used on networks
using Token Ring topology.

• Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its
center. A plastic layer provides insulation between the center
conductor and a braided metal shield (See fig. 3). The metal
shield helps to block any outside interference from fluorescent
lights, motors, and other computers.

Fig.3. Coaxial cable

 Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is
highly resistant to signal interference. In addition, it can
support greater cable lengths between network devices than
twisted pair cable. The two types of coaxial cabling are: thick
coaxial and thin coaxial.

Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2

refers to the specifications for thin coaxial cable carrying
Ethernet signals. The 2 refers to the approximate maximum
segment length being 200 meters. In actual fact the maximum
segment length is 185 meters. Thin coaxial cable is popular in
school networks, especially linear bus networks.

Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet.

10Base5 refers to the specifications for thick coaxial cable
carrying Ethernet signals. The 5 refers to the maximum segment
length being 500 meters. Thick coaxial cable has an extra
protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture away from the
center conductor. This makes thick coaxial a great choice when
running longer lengths in a linear bus network. One
disadvantage of thick coaxial is that it does not bend easily
and is difficult to install.
• Coaxial Cable Connectors

The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables

is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNC) connector (See fig. 4).
Different types of adapters are available for BNC connectors,
including a T-connector, barrel connector, and terminator.
Connectors on the cable are the weakest points in any network.
To help avoid problems with your network, always use the BNC
connectors that crimp, rather than screw, onto the cable.

Fig.4. BNC connector

• Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core

surrounded by several layers of protective materials (See fig.
5). It transmits light rather than electronic signals,
eliminating the problem of electrical interference. This makes
it ideal for certain environments that contain a large amount
of electrical interference. It has also made it the standard
for connecting networks between buildings, due to its immunity
to the effects of moisture and lighting.

Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals

over much longer distances than coaxial and twisted pair. It
also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater
speeds. This capacity broadens communication possibilities to
include services such as video conferencing and interactive
services. The cost of fiber optic cabling is comparable to
copper cabling; however, it is more difficult to install and
modify. 10BaseF refers to the specifications for fiber optic
cable carrying Ethernet signals.

Fig.5. Fiber optic cable

Facts about fiber optic cables:
 Outer insulating jacket is made of Teflon or PVC.
 Kevlar fiber helps to strengthen the cable and prevent
breakage.
 A plastic coating is used to cushion the fiber center.
 Center (core) is made of glass or plastic fibers.
 Fiber Optic Connector

• Fiber Optic Connector

The most common connector used with fiber optic cable is
an ST connector. It is barrel shaped, similar to a BNC
connector. A newer connector, the SC, is becoming more
popular. It has a squared face and is easier to connect in a
confined space.
Ethernet Cable Summary

Specification Cable Type Maximum length

10BaseT Unshielded Twisted 100 meters
Pair
10Base2 Thin Coaxial 185 meters
10Base5 Thick Coaxial 500 meters
10BaseF Fiber Optic 2000 Meters
Installing Cable - Some Guidelines
When running cable, it is best to follow a few simple
rules:
• Always use more cable than you need. Leave plenty of
slack.
• Test every part of a network as you install it. Even if
it is brand new, it may have problems that will be
difficult to isolate later.
• Stay at least 3 feet away from fluorescent light boxes
and other sources of electrical interference.
• If it is necessary to run cable across the floor, over
the cable with cable protectors.
• Label both ends of each cable.
• Use cable ties (not tape) to keep cables in the same
location together
NETWORK CONNECTIONS
• Wired Network
The most common type of network connection is a wired
connection.  This is the jack in the wall that you plug your
computer into for network access.  Usually these jacks are
labelled with a room number followed by a sequence number and
are near the telephone jack.  The network jack is similar in
shape to the phone jack in your home only bigger.  Phone jacks
at Missouri State University are also the larger size and they
are usually white or beige in color.  Network jacks, however,
are usually orange (for older wiring) or yellow.
• Wireless Network
Wireless data networks exist in such number and variety as to be
difficult to categorize and compare.
Some wireless data networks run over wireless voice networks, such
as mobile telephone networks. CPDP, HSCSD, PDC-P, and GPRS are
examples. Other wireless networks run on their own physical layer
networks, utilizing anything from antennas built into handlheld
devices to large antennas mounted on towers. 802.11, LMDS, and MMDS
are examples. A few wireless networks are intended only to connect
small devices over short distances. Bluetooth is an example.
Wireless networks which run over other wireless networks often
utilize the lower layer networks to provide security and encryption.
Stand-alone wireless networks either provide their own security and
encryption features or rely upon VPN's (Virtual Private Networks) to
provide those features. In many cases, multiple layers of security
and encryption may be desirable.
Some wireless networks are fixed, meaning that antennas do not move
frequently. Other wireless networks are mobile, meaning that the
antenna can move constantly. This is sometimes a feature of the
specific implementation and antenna design, instead of an inherent
limitation of the wireless network specification.
Wireless networks may operate on licensed or unlicensed portions of
the frequency spectrum.
Some Types of Wireless Network:
Bluetooth
Bluetooth technology is named after Harald Bluetooth, a Danish
king who managed to consolidate Denmark and a part of Norway in the
1900s. The choice for the name of this technology is a
manifestation of how influential and central the companies from
this region are to the telecommunications industry.
Bluetooth is a networking technology that does not rely on
user control or large amounts of power. By keeping the transmission
power to an extremely low setting (1 milliwatt), Bluetooth is ideal
for mobile battery operated devices. Moreover, Bluetooth does not
rely on the user since it can automatically detect and communicate
with other Bluetooth devices without any user input.
Bluetooth technology relies on two things, a radio frequency
technology and the protocol software enabling it to transmit data
to other devices. Bluetooth-capable devices can transmit data to
other devices not within the line of sight of the user. It also
enables different devices to communicate using certain rules such
as the amount of data that will be sent, the type of communication
between the devices and the radio frequency or frequencies this
communication will take place. These protocols ensure that
Bluetooth devices experience the least amount of interference from
other Bluetooth capable objects while communicating with each
other.
Wi-fi
Wi-Fi is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance for certified
products based on the IEEE 802.11 standards. This certification
warrants interoperability between different wireless devices.
In some countries the term Wi-Fi is often used by the
public as a synonym for IEEE 802.11-wireless LAN (WLAN).
Not every IEEE 802.11 compliant device is certified by the
Wi-Fi Alliance, which may be because of certification costs
that must be paid for each certified device type. The lack of
the Wi-Fi logo does not imply that a device is incompatible to
certified Wi-Fi-devices.
Wi-Fi is used by most personal computer operating systems,
many video game consoles, laptops, smartphones, printers, and
other peripherals.
Infrared
IR data transmission is also employed in short-range communication among
computer peripherals and personal digital assistants. These devices
usually conform to standards published by IrDA, the Infrared Data
Association. Remote controls and IrDA devices use infrared light-emitting
diodes (LEDs) to emit infrared radiation which is focused by a plastic
lens into a narrow beam. The beam is modulated, i.e. switched on and off,
to encode the data. The receiver uses a silicon photodiode to convert the
infrared radiation to an electric current. It responds only to the rapidly
pulsing signal created by the transmitter, and filters out slowly changing
infrared radiation from ambient light. Infrared communications are useful
for indoor use in areas of high population density. IR does not penetrate
walls and so does not interfere with other devices in adjoining rooms.
Infrared is the most common way for remote controls to command appliances.
Free space optical communication using infrared lasers can be a relatively
inexpensive way to install a communications link in an urban area
operating at up to 4 gigabit/s, compared to the cost of burying fiber
optic cable.
Infrared lasers are used to provide the light for optical fiber
communications systems. Infrared light with a wavelength around 1,330 nm
(least dispersion) or 1,550 nm (best transmission) are the best choices
for standard silica fibers.
IR data transmission of encoded audio versions of printed signs is being
researched as an aid for visually impaired people through the RIAS (Remote
Infrared Audible Signage) project.
Microwave
Microwave communication is the transmission of signals via
radio using a series of microwave towers. Microwave
communication is known as a form of “line of sight”
communication, because there must be nothing obstructing the
transmission of data between these towers for signals to be
properly sent and received.
Microwave communication takes place both analog and
digital formats. While digital is the most advanced form of
microwave communication, both analog and digital methods pose
certain benefits for users.
DATABASE SYSTEM
A Database Management System (DBMS) is a set of computer
programs that controls the creation, maintenance, and the use
of the database of an organization and its end users. It allows
organizations to place control of organization-wide database
development in the hands of database administrators (DBAs) and
other specialists. DBMSs may use any of a variety of database
models, such as the network model or relational model. In large
systems, a DBMS allows users and other software to store and
retrieve data in a structured way. It helps to specify the
logical organization for a database and access and use the
information within a database. It provides facilities for
controlling data access, enforcing data integrity, managing
concurrency controlled, restoring database.
DBMS Building Blocks
A DBMS includes four main parts: modeling language, data
structure, database query language, and transaction mechanisms:

Components of DBMS
• DBMS Engine accepts logical request from the various other DBMS
subsystems, converts them into physical equivalent, and actually
accesses the database and data dictionary as they exist on a storage
device.
• Data Definition Subsystem helps user to create and maintain the data
dictionary and define the structure of the files in a database.
• Data Manipulation Subsystem helps user to add, change, and delete
information in a database and query it for valuable information.
Software tools within the data manipulation subsystem are most often
the primary interface between user and the information contained in
a database. It allows user to specify its logical information
requirements.
• Application Generation Subsystem contains facilities to help users
to develop transactions-intensive applications. It usually requires
that user perform a detailed series of tasks to process a
transaction. It facilities easy-to-use data entry screens,
programming languages, and interfaces.
• Data Administration Subsystem helps users to manage the overall
database environment by providing facilities for backup and
recovery, security management, query optimization, concurrency
control, and change management.
Modeling Language
A data modeling language to define the schema of each
database hosted in the DBMS, according to the DBMS database
model. The four most common types of models are the:
– hierarchical model,
– network model,
– relational model, and
– object model.

Inverted lists and other methods are also used. A given

database management system may provide one or more of the four
models. The optimal structure depends on the natural
organization of the application's data, and on the
application's requirements (which include transaction rate
(speed), reliability, maintainability, scalability, and cost).

The dominant model in use today is the ad hoc one embedded

in SQL, despite the objections of purists who believe this
model is a corruption of the relational model, since it
violates several of its fundamental principles for the sake of
practicality and performance. Many DBMSs also support the Open
Database Connectivity API that supports a standard way for
programmers to access the DBMS.
 Before the database management approach, organizations relied on
file processing systems to organize, store, and process data files. End
users became aggravated with file processing because data is stored in
many different files and each organized in a different way. Each file
was specialized to be used with a specific application. Needless to say,
file processing was bulky, costly and nonflexible when it came to
supplying needed data accurately and promptly. Data redundancy is an
issue with the file processing system because the independent data files
produce duplicate data so when updates were needed each separate file
would need to be updated. Another issue is the lack of data integration.
The data is dependent on other data to organize and store it. Lastly,
there was not any consistency or standardization of the data in a file
processing system which makes maintenance difficult. For all these
reasons, the database management approach was produced. Database
management systems (DBMS) are designed to use one of five database
structures to provide simplistic access to information stored in
databases. The five database structures are hierarchical, network,
relational, multidimensional and object-oriented models.

The hierarchical structure was used in early mainframe DBMS.

Records’ relationships form a treelike model. This structure is simple
but nonflexible because the relationship is confined to a one-to-many
relationship. IBM’s IMS system and the RDM Mobile are examples of a
hierarchical database system with multiple hierarchies over the same
data, RDM Mobile is a newly designed embedded database for a mobile
computer system. The hierarchical structure is used primary today for
storing geographic information and file systems.
 The network structure consists of more complex relationships.
Unlike the hierarchical structure, it can relate to many records
and accesses them by following one of several paths. In other
words, this structure allows for many-to-many relationships.

The relational structure is the most commonly used today. It

is used by mainframe, midrange and microcomputer systems. It uses
two-dimensional rows and columns to store data. The tables of
records can be connected by common key values. While working for
IBM, E.F. Codd designed this structure in 1970. The model is not
easy for the end user to run queries with because it may require a
complex combination of many tables.

The multidimensional structure is similar to the relational

model. The dimensions of the cube looking model have data relating
to elements in each cell. This structure gives a spreadsheet like
view of data. This structure is easy to maintain because records
are stored as fundamental attributes, the same way they’re viewed
and the structure is easy to understand. Its high performance has
made it the most popular database structure when it comes to
enabling online analytical processing (OLAP).

The object oriented structure has the ability to handle

graphics, pictures, voice and text, types of data, without
difficultly unlike the other database structures. This structure is
popular for multimedia Web-based applications. It was designed to
work with object-oriented programming languages such as Java.
Data Structure
Data structures (fields, records, files and objects)
optimized to deal with very large amounts of data stored on a
permanent data storage device (which implies relatively slow
access compared to volatile main memory).

Database Querry Language

A database query language and report writer allows users
to interactively interrogate the database, analyze its data and
update it according to the users privileges on data. It also
controls the security of the database. Data security prevents
unauthorized users from viewing or updating the database. Using
passwords, users are allowed access to the entire database or
subsets of it called subschemas. For example, an employee
database can contain all the data about an individual employee,
but one group of users may be authorized to view only payroll
data, while others are allowed access to only work history and
medical data.
If the DBMS provides a way to interactively enter and
update the database, as well as interrogate it, this capability
allows for managing personal databases. However, it may not
leave an audit trail of actions or provide the kinds of
controls necessary in a multi-user organization. These controls
are only available when a set of application programs are
customized for each data entry and updating function.
Transaction Mechanism
A database transaction mechanism ideally guarantees ACID
properties in order to ensure data integrity despite concurrent
user accesses (concurrency control), and faults (fault
tolerance). It also maintains the integrity of the data in the
database. The DBMS can maintain the integrity of the database
by not allowing more than one user to update the same record at
the same time. The DBMS can help prevent duplicate records via
unique index constraints; for example, no two customers with
the same customer numbers (key fields) can be entered into the
database. See ACID properties for more information (Redundancy
avoidance).
SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT
The largely growing body of software development organizations
implement process methodologies. Many of them are in the defense
industry, which in the U.S. requires a rating based on 'process models'
to obtain contracts.

The international standard for describing the method of selecting,

implementing and monitoring the life cycle for software is ISO 12207.

A decades-long goal has been to find repeatable, predictable

processes that improve productivity and quality. Some try to systematize
or formalize the seemingly unruly task of writing software. Others apply
project management techniques to writing software. Without project
management, software projects can easily be delivered late or over
budget. With large numbers of software projects not meeting their
expectations in terms of functionality, cost, or delivery schedule,
effective project management appears to be lacking.

Organizations may create a Software Engineering Process Group

(SEPG), which is the focal point for process improvement. Composed of
line practitioners who have varied skills, the group is at the center of
the collaborative effort of everyone in the organization who is involved
with software engineering process improvement.
Software Development Activities:
1. Planning

The important task in creating a software product is extracting

the requirements or requirements analysis. Customers typically
have an abstract idea of what they want as an end result, but
not what software should do. Incomplete, ambiguous, or even
contradictory requirements are recognized by skilled and
experienced software engineers at this point. Frequently
demonstrating live code may help reduce the risk that the
requirements are incorrect.

Once the general requirements are gleaned from the client, an

analysis of the scope of the development should be determined
and clearly stated. This is often called a scope document.

Certain functionality may be out of scope of the project as a

function of cost or as a result of unclear requirements at the
start of development. If the development is done externally,
this document can be considered a legal document so that if
there are ever disputes, any ambiguity of what was promised to
the client can be clarified.
2. Design

Domain Analysis is often the first step in attempting to design a new

piece of software, whether it be an addition to an existing software, a
new application, a new subsystem or a whole new system. Assuming that
the developers (including the analysts) are not sufficiently
knowledgeable in the subject area of the new software, the first task is
to investigate the so-called "domain" of the software. The more
knowledgeable they are about the domain already, the less work required.
Another objective of this work is to make the analysts, who will later
try to elicit and gather the requirements from the area experts, speak
with them in the domain's own terminology, facilitating a better
understanding of what is being said by these experts. If the analyst
does not use the proper terminology it is likely that they will not be
taken seriously, thus this phase is an important prelude to extracting
and gathering the requirements.

Specification - Specification is the task of precisely describing the software to be

written, possibly in a rigorous way. In practice, most successful specifications are
written to understand and fine-tune applications that were already well-developed,
although safety-critical software systems are often carefully specified prior to
application development. Specifications are most important for external interfaces
that must remain stable. A good way to determine whether the specifications are
sufficiently precise is to have a third party review the documents making sure that
the requirements and Use Cases are logically sound.
Architecture - The architecture of a software system or software architecture refers
to an abstract representation of that system. Architecture is concerned with making
sure the software system will meet the requirements of the product, as well as
ensuring that future requirements can be addressed. The architecture step also
addresses interfaces between the software system and other software products, as
well as the underlying hardware or the host operating system.
3. Implementation, testing and documenting

Implementation is the part of the process where software

engineers actually program the code for the project.

Software testing is an integral and important part of the

software development process. This part of the process ensures
that bugs are recognized as early as possible.

Documenting the internal design of software for the purpose of

future maintenance and enhancement is done throughout
development. This may also include the authoring of an API, be
it external or internal.
4. Deployment and Maintenance

Deployment starts after the code is appropriately tested, is approved for

release and sold or otherwise distributed into a production environment.

Software Training and Support is important because a large percentage of

software projects fail because the developers fail to realize that it doesn't
matter how much time and planning a development team puts into creating
software if nobody in an organization ends up using it. People are often
resistant to change and avoid venturing into an unfamiliar area, so as a part
of the deployment phase, it is very important to have training classes for
new clients of your software.

Maintenance and enhancing software to cope with newly discovered problems or

new requirements can take far more time than the initial development of the
software. It may be necessary to add code that does not fit the original
design to correct an unforeseen problem or it may be that a customer is
requesting more functionality and code can be added to accommodate their
requests. It is during this phase that customer calls come in and you see
whether your testing was extensive enough to uncover the problems before
customers do. If the labor cost of the maintenance phase exceeds 25% of the
prior-phases' labor cost, then it is likely that the overall quality, of at
least one prior phase, is poor. In that case, management should consider the
option of rebuilding the system (or portions) before maintenance cost is out
of control.

Bug Tracking System tools are often deployed at this stage of the process to
allow development teams to interface with customer/field teams testing the
software to identify any real or perceived issues. These software tools, both
open source and commercially licensed, provide a customizable process to
acquire, review, acknowledge, and respond to reported issues.
 Algie G. Alburo
Albert D. Espinas

Kevin E. Espineda
GROUP
Arvie 1
Phillip A. Ludovice

Arnulfo M. Virtucio
MEMBERS
Trishia Mae A. Grospe Ronnel c. lorenzo

Ernuel Rigie Q. Rempillo

Jose Leo D. Dichoso
Jaime Arden E. Olbes
That’s
All
Folks!