Text as a Connected

Discourse
READING
TEXT
DISCOURSE
CONNECTED
DISCOURSE
WRITTEN TEXT
AS CONNECTED
DISCOURSE
CONNECTED
DISCOURSE AS
A WRITTEN TEXT
GUESS WHO?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
ALBERT EINSTEIN TOM CRUISE
 CHARLES
STEVE JOBS DARWIN
LEONARDO DA GEORGE
VINCI WASHINGTON BUSH
 THOMAS
WALT DISNEY EDISON
CARL JUNG JOHN LENNON
READING
Who taught you
how to read?
What is Reading?
LAPP and FLOOD (1978)
Reading is defined
according to two types:
1. Decoding process
2. Comprehension process
DAVID (2005)
It is a process of involving the
readers into an interaction with the
text and enables them to use the
reading strategies in getting the
meaning of the printed text.
READING
IS A SKILL.
FISHER and FREY (2008)
Students of the 21st century must
be able to locate, understand,
evaluate, and use written
information in their personal and
academic lives.
Importance
of
Reading
• Reading
improves
discipline &
memory.
• Reading
builds self-
esteem.
• Reading
improves
creativity.
• Reading
improves
vocabulary.
• Reading
increases
imagination.
• Reading
broadens
your
horizons.
• Reading
helps
develop a
strong sense
of character.
• Reading
improves
school
performance.
“I love books! I think books open windows
to the world for all of us.”
- Oprah Winfrey
“Reading makes full man.”
- Francis Bacon
Text vs. Discourse
TEXT
TEXT
• It came from the Old
French word textus which
means “the scriptures”

• A text can be defined as an

object that can be read,
whether it is a work of
literature, a lesson written
on the blackboard, or a
street sign.
TEXT
• A large unit of written
language or a group of ideas
that have been combined
together to have a main
idea.

• In literary studies, text

usually refers to the written
material.
Properties of a Well-
written Text
1. Organization
2. Coherence and Cohesion
3. Language Use
4. Mechanics
Properties of a Well-written Text
1. Organization
- refers to the arrangement of ideas
in a text
 Outline
- provides a format in which ideas
can be arranged in a hierarchy- that
is, it distinguishes the general ideas
from the specific or subordinating
ideas
2. Coherence and Cohesion
- refer to the connection of ideas
and connection between sentences
and between paragraphs
 Coherence vs. Cohesion
 Coherence means the connection of
ideas at the idea level.
(1) Animals use their tails for special
purposes. (2) Monkeys use their tails
for grasping branches. (3) Dogs wag
their tails to greet their masters. (4)
Male peacocks spread their tails like
huge fans to attract the female birds.
(5) Kangaroos use their tails for
balancing.
 Coherence vs. Cohesion
 Cohesion means the connection of ideas
at the sentence level.
1. I am not afraid of an army of lions
led by a sheep. Many sheep are
white. White is the color of snow.
Snow is cold.
2. I am not afraid of an army of lions
led by a sheep; but I am afraid of
an army of sheep led by a lion.
-Alexander the Great
 Coherence and Cohesion
• My favorite color is green. I like it
because it is relaxing and it relieves
me. I usually go out in the spring
and lie on the grass when I am
stressed. Consequently, I have to
say green is my favorite among all
other colors.
 Cohesion but no Coherence
• My favorite color is green. Green
cars are very fast. Driving this way is
not safe and may lead to many car
accidents. I had one once and I
broke my leg. I was very unhappy
because I missed the picnic
because of the injury.
 Coherence but no Cohesion
• My favorite color is green. I am
relaxed. In the spring I lie on the
grass. I sleep.
3. Appropriate Language Use
- refers to the acceptable style of
language for a particular form of
text
4. Proper Mechanics
- refers to the conventions of
writing which includes
capitalization, punctuation,
spelling, numerals, abbreviations,
acronyms and contractions
Seven Qualities of a Text
according to Jorgensen
and Phillips
1. Cohesion 5. Informativity
2. Coherence 6. Situationality
3. Intentionality 7. Intertextuality
4. Acceptability
1. Cohesion. The parts are
connected.
2. Coherence. The overall text has
meaning.
3. Intentionality. The writer’s
attitude and purpose can be
discerned.
4. Acceptability. The text is
recognized.
5. Informativity. There is a
quantity of new or expected info.
6. Situationality. The text’s topic
is situationally and culturally
appropriate.
7. Intertextuality. The text can be
linked to preceeding discourse.
Which of the following statements is
the best intertextuality definition?
A. The relationship between texts.
B. Allusions from one text to another.
C. The translation of a text into a
different language.

Answer: A
DISCOURSE
DISCOURSE
 It came from the Latin word
discursus which means “running
to and fro”.

 In Medieval Latin it means

“argument” and in Late Latin it
means “conversation”.

 It is any written or spoken

communication and can also be
described as the expression of
thought through language.
Discourse

3
How language is
used to:
• convey meanings
• propel action
• provoke a specific
response
THREE PURPOSES
OF DISCOURSE
1. To inform
2. To persuade
3. To entertain
to Inform to Entertain to Persuade
 The Slim-O-Matic will cause you to
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to Inform to Entertain to Persuade
Joe had been fishing for over two hours
without a single bite. Suddenly there was
a nibble at the end of his fishing line. He
stood up on the boat and leaned out too
far. Just then there was a sharp yank on
the line. Joe fell overboard and landed
head first into the water. Joe and his
friends laughed and laughed.

to Inform to Entertain to Persuade

1. To inform
A discourse that aims to
inform provides a descriptive
and comprehensive
discussion on the topic.
2. To persuade
A discourse that aims to
persuade tries to convince
the readers that the
proposed claim or solution is
better than any other
proposal.
3. To entertain
A discourse that aims to
amuse provides a source of
entertainment for its readers.
Factors that influenced
discourse:
• culture
• social environment
• personal experiences
FOUR
TYPES/FORMS OF
DISCOURSE
Argumentation
It is a form of communication
meant to convince an
audience that the writer or
speaker is correct, using
evidence and reason.
Narration
This form of communication
tells a story, often with
emotion and empathy
involved.
Description
It is a form of communication
that relies on the five senses
to help the audience
visualize something.
Exposition
It is a form of communication
meant to explain or inform
the audience of something.
THREE TYPES OF
LITERARY
DISCOURSE
Expressive
Expressive discourse
comprises those acts of
literary writing that is
creative, yet non-fiction.
Ex: memoirs, letters, or
online blogs
Poetic
Poetic discourse comprises
creative, fictional writing.
Ex: novels, poems, and
drama
Transactional
Transactional discourse is used
to propel something into action.
Ex: advertising and motivating
a customer to buy or showing a
customer how to use a product
via a manual
Text vs. Discourse
Similarity Between
Text and Discourse
Both text and
discourse usually
consist of sentences
which communication
information.
Difference Between
Text and Discourse
 Text is usually a written form of
communication information,
which is a non-interactive
nature.

 Discourse can be from spoken,

written, visual and audial form,
communicating information
that is interactive in nature.
 Agent
The agent is not
crucial for the text.
However, the agent is
crucial, and it is that
what makes up a
discourse.
 Nature
The text is non-
interactive in nature;
on the contrary,
discourse is
interactive in nature.
 Analysis
Parts
 In a text, the grammatical
cohesion and the structure of
sentences are analyzed.

 In discourse, the agents

involved in the communication,
the social purpose and the
medium utilized are analyzed to
comprehend the meaning of it.
Medium or Form
Text is usually in
written form.
Discourse can be
either in written,
verbal, visual or audio
form.
 Examples
 Texts include press reports,
street signs, documents, etc.

 Discourse can be dialogues,

conversations, interactions
in audio-visual programmes,
etc, anything that depicts the
social usage of the language.
Text or Discourse

1. street
signs
Text or Discourse

2. dialogues
Text or Discourse

3. biblical
passages
Text or Discourse

4. interview
Text or Discourse

5. class
discussion
Text or Discourse

6. lesson in
a book
Text or Discourse

7. press
reports
Text or Discourse

8. conversations
Text or Discourse

9. books
Text or Discourse

10. chats
Text or Discourse

11. words of
a song
Text or Discourse

12. jokes
Text or Discourse

13. arguments
Text or Discourse

14. sermon
Text or Discourse

15. newspapers
 Narration, Description,
Exposition or Persuasion
Narration, Description,
Exposition or Persuasion
16. history
Narration, Description,
Exposition or Persuasion
17. advertisement
Narration, Description,
Exposition or Persuasion
18. encyclopedia
Narration, Description,
Exposition or Persuasion
19. election
pamphlet
Narration, Description,
Exposition or Persuasion
20. travelogue
Narration, Description,
Exposition or Persuasion
21. police
report
Narration, Description,
Exposition or Persuasion
22. book
summary
Narration, Description,
Exposition or Persuasion
23. debate
Narration, Description,
Exposition or Persuasion
24. laboratory
report
Narration, Description,
Exposition or Persuasion
25. political
campaigns
 Expressive, Poetic or
Transactional Discourse
Expressive, Poetic, or
Transactional Discourse
26. novels
Expressive, Poetic, or
Transactional Discourse
27. blogs
Expressive, Poetic, or
Transactional Discourse
28. commercial
ads
Expressive, Poetic, or
Transactional Discourse
29. diaries
Expressive, Poetic, or
Transactional Discourse
30. instructional
materials
to inform, to persuade or
to entertain
31.
to inform, to persuade or
to entertain
32.
to inform, to persuade or
to entertain
33.
to inform, to persuade or
to entertain
34.
to inform, to persuade or
to entertain
35.
CONNECTED
DISCOURSE
 CONNECTED
DISCOURSE
 It is a continuous
sequence of sounds
forming utterances or
conversations in spoken
language.
LINGUISTICS
Morpheme
- the smallest grammatical unit in
a language

Two Types of Morpheme:

1. Free Morpheme
2. Bound Morpheme
1. Free Morpheme
- can function independently as a
word

Examples: house, cat, blood

 2. Bound Morpheme
-a word element attached to a
root word (the main part of a
word) to give it another meaning
- cannot function independently
as a word
Examples: affixes (prefixes and
suffixes)
Affix
-a morpheme that is attached to a
root word to form a new word

1. Prefix
2. Suffix
Prefix
- a morpheme that comes before
a root word
Examples:
auto- (automobile)
in- (incorrect)
over- (overcharge)
Two Varieties of Suffixes
1. Inflectional Suffixes
- modify the grammatical class of
words by signaling a change in
number, tense, degrees of
comparison, and so on, but they
do not shift the base form into
another word class
 Inflectional Added to Examples
Morphemes
-s plural Nouns She got two guitars.
-'s possessive Nouns Zeynep's hair is too long.
-er comparative Adjectives Zeynep hair is longer than Derya.
-est superlative Adjectives Zeynep has the longest hair.

-s 3rd person Verbs Zeynep plays the guitar.

singular present tense

-ed past tense Verbs She played the guitar at the party.

-ing progressive Verbs She is playing the guitar at the

party.
-en past participle Verbs She has taken the guitar at the
party.
 2. Derivational Suffixes
- modify either the part of speech
or the actual meaning of a word
Derivational Meaning Examples
Morpheme
-al relating to formal, postal,
practical
-less without homeless,
hopeless
-ous full of famous, cautious
-hood state, condition, brotherhood,
quality neighborhood
 Compound Words
- combination of two different words
Examples:
back + ward = backward (towards the
reverse direction)
book + shelf = bookshelf (storage of books)
full + moon = full moon (a moon appearing as a
bright circle)
six + pack = six-pack (often in reference to a pack
of drinks)
WRITTEN TEXT
AS CONNECTED
DISCOURSE
What makes
text a
connected
discourse?
CONNECTED
DISCOURSE AS
A WRITTEN TEXT

12
 CONNECTED
DISCOURSE AS A
WRITTEN TEXT
 These refer to text with
distinct features and
purpose in which ideas
are coherently
arranged.
FORMS OF WRITTEN
TEXT OF DISCOURSE
 Critiques
 Recipe/Procedures
 Diary Entry/Journal
 Position Paper
 Research articles
 News Articles
 Blog Posts
 Transitional Words:
1. Additive and, also, besides,
Words moreover, furthermore, in
addition, additionally, too
2. Equivalent as well as, at the same time,
Words equally important, likewise,
similarly
3. Amplifying as, for example, for
Words instance, in fact, like,
specifically, particularly,
such as, that is, to illustrate
4. Alternative Words either/or, neither/nor, other
than, otherwise
5. Repetitive Words again, to repeat, to reiterate,
in other words, that is
6. Contrastive and but, conversely, however,
Change Words despite, in spite of, even
though, on the contrary, on
the other hand, nevertheless,
regardless, notwithstanding,
rather than, still, though,
whereas, while, yet
7. Conditional if, provided that, unless, in the
Words event that
8. Concession Although, even though,
Words though, granted that
9. Emphasizing above all, indeed, more
Words important, more importantly,
of course
10. Sequential finally, first, firstly, second,
Words secondly, third, thirdly, last,
lastly, then
11. Temporal Words afterwards, meanwhile, at the
meantime, before, after,
formerly, previously, later,
next, finally, ultimately,
subsequently, until
12. Summative/ briefly, in brief, for, these
Summarizing reasons, in conclusion, to
Words conclude, to end, to sum,
up, to summariza, as a
summary, in short
13. Causative because, because of, due to,
Words owing to, out of, inasmuch
as, since, for this reason
14. Consequential therefore, hence, thus, as a
Words result, as a consequence,
then, so consequently,
accordingly
 Connectives for listing arguments
This can be used for
Firstly the first supporting
argument.

These can be used for

Secondly, furthermore, any further supporting
moreover, in addition arguments (except, of
course, for “Secondly”
which can only be used
for the second.

This can be used for

Finally the last supporting
argument.
 Concluding Connectives
Three common concluding connectives are:

In conclusion These all carry

roughly the same
In summary meaning. They should
be used to indicate
that you are making
Thus final statements that
cover all the
supporting arguments
in a very general way.
In fact/Indeed
These two connectives have almost
the same meaning and both can be
used in the following situations:

1. To connect a more detailed

statement with a preceding general
statement
Example: Today is very warm. In fact
(or Indeed) it is 35 degrees Celsius.
2. To connect a statement which is
more factual and exact with a
preceding statement that is more
debatable and general.

Example: The internet is very

popular in Australia. Indeed (or In
fact), Australia has the highest
proportion of Internet users per
head of population of any country in
the world.
Essential Learning
A text is a connected
discourse, which means
that all ideas in the text
must be related in the
sense that they would
express only one main
idea, or that the text must
have unity by combining
all ideas to emphasize
central idea.