Basic Flow Measurement

Basic Flow Measurement
1 September 23, 2004

Contents
1) Introduction
2) Types of Flows
3) Basic Requirements for Flow Measurement
4) Definition of Quantities to be Measured
5) Types of Measurement
6) Types of Flow Meters
7) Selection of Flow Meters
8) Flow Measurement Information
9) Questions & Answers

TERMINOLOGY
• Turndown ratio is a flow measurement term that
indicates the range of specific flow meter, or meter
type, is able to measure with acceptable accuracy. It
is also known as rangeability. It is important when
choosing a flow meter technology for a specific
application. If a gas flow to be measured is expected
to vary between 100,000 m³ per day and 1,000,000
m³ per day, the specific application has a turndown
ratio of at 10:1. Therefore the meter requires a
turndown ratio of at least 10:1. For example: if the
meter had an advertised maximum flow of 2,000,000
m³ per day then the required turndown ratio would be
20:1.
A Comparison of Flowmeter Options
*Cost values can vary quite a bit depending on process temperature and pressures, accuracy required, and approvals needed.
Gas Differential-
Attribute Variable-area Coriolis Turbine Oval Gear
mass-flow Pressure
Clean gases yes yes yes yes yes —
Clean Liquids yes yes — yes yes yes
yes, >10
Viscous yes (special yes (special
yes — no centistokes
Liquids calibration) calibration)
(cst)
Corrosive
yes yes — no yes yes
Liquids
0.05-0.15% of 0.25-1% of 0.1-0.5% of
Accuracy, ± 2-4% full scale 1.5% full scale 2-3% full-scale
reading reading reading
Repeatability, 0.25% full 0.05-0.10% of 0.1% of 0.1% of
0.5% full scale 1% full-scale
± scale reading reading reading
Max pressure,
200 and up 900 and up 500 and up 100 5,000 and up 4,000 and up
psi
Max temp., °F 250 and up 250 and up 150 and up 122 300 and up 175 and up
Pressure drop medium low low medium medium medium
Turndown
10:1 100:1 50:1 20:1 10:1 25:1
ratio
Average cost* $200-600 $2,500-5,000 $600-1,000 $500-800 $600-1,000 $600-1,200
4
A Comparison of Flowmeter Parameters
Attribute Bubble Doppler Transit-Time Vortex Magnetic

Gases Yes Yes1 Yes1 Yes No
Steam No Yes1 Yes1 Yes No
Liquids Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Viscous liquids2 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Corrosive Not
Yes Yes Yes Yes
liquids recommended
Typical
2%3 2%4 0.5%4 0.75-1.5%5 0.5-1%5
Accuracy
Typical
1%3 0.5%4 0.2%4 0.2%5 0.2%5
Repeatability
Max pressure,
Vent6 N/A7 N/A7 300 to 400 600-800
psi
Max temp., °F 212 N/A7 N/A7 400 to 500 250-300
Max pressure
negligible negligible negligible 15 to 20 negligible
drop, psi
Typical
300 to 1 50 to 1 N/A9 20 to 1 20 to 1
turndown ratio8
5 $2,000 to $5,000 to $2,000 to
Average cost10 $600 $800 to $2,000
$5,000 $8,000 $3,000
Introduction
Since 1989 there were at least 23 distinct type of
technologies available for the measurement of flow in
closed conduit. Flow meters selection are part of the
basic art of the instrument engineer, and while only
handful of these technologies contribute to the majority
of installations.
And wide product knowledge is essential to find the
most cost effective solution to any flow measurement
application.

FLOW MEASUREMENT
•HOW MUCH (TOTAL)
• HOW FAST (RATE)

Flow Through A Pipe
Idealized Real World
V V
Pipe Velocity Profile

Types of Flows

Images - Laminar/Turbulent Flows
(Visualization)
Laser - induced florescence image

of an incompressible turbulent
boundary layer
Laminar flow (Blood Flow)
Simulation of turbulent flow coming out of a

tailpipe Turbulent flow Laminar flow
Flow Profile Correlation
Steam
V Water
Heavy Crude
n Velocity profile is a predictable function of

Reynolds number. Fluids with the same
Reynolds number will have similar velocity
profiles.
General Flow Terminology
n Reynolds Number (RE)– A single dimensionless

parameter formed as the ratio of inertial to
viscous forces . Magnitude indicates whether
flow is laminar or turbulent
Fluid Fluid Characteristic
Density Velocity Dimension*
Inertia Forces (p) (V) (D)
RE= Viscous Forces =
Fluid Viscosity ( )
* Usually inside pipe diameter.

Types of Flows
Reynolds Number
The performance of flowmeters is also influenced by a dimensionless unit called the
Reynolds Number. It is defined as the ratio of the liquid's inertial forces to its drag
forces.
The Reynolds number is used for determined whether a flow is laminar or turbulent.
Laminar flow within pipes will occur when the Reynolds number is below the critical
Reynolds number of 2300 and turbulent flow when it is above 2300. The value of 2300
has been determined experimentally and a certain range around this value is considered
the transition region between laminar and turbulent flow.
Or
ѵs = Mean Fluid Velocity,

η - (Absolute) Dynamic fluid Viscosity
v = Kinematics Fluid Viscosity (ν = η/ρ)
ρ = Fluid Density
L = Characteristic Length (Equal to diameter, 2r if a Cross Section is Circular)

Characterization of Fluid Flow
n Types of Flow
RE < 2100 Laminar
Transitional
n RE >3000 Turbulent ***
*** Well documented & proven fully

developed flow profiles
Volumetric Flowrate (Q)
V
A
Q
Volume = Area x Length

Volume Flow = Area x Velocity
Mass Flowrate (m)
Q=VA
Mass Flow m = Qp
= AV
V
A
m Where m = Mass Flow
Q = Volume Flow
= Fluid Density
Mass = Volume x Density

Mass vs Volume Flowmeters
• Why are we concerned?
• How much does it really matter?
• Flow through a 4” line measured in a Averaging Pitot
Flow Rate 1000 cfm 1000 cfm

Pressure 5 psi 5 psi
Temperature 100 F 70 F
DP in WC 12.181 11.532
There is a 6% error just by changing density /

temperature slightly…can you meter cope??
Basic Requirements for Flow Measurement
Ability to Calibrate
Ability to Integrate Flow Fluctuation
Easy Integration with Piping System
High Accuracy
High Turn-Down Ratio
Low Cost
Low Sensitivity to Dirt Particles
Low Pressure Loss
No Moving Parts
Resistant to Corrosion and Erosion

Definition of Quantities to be measured
Volume Flow Rate
The definition of volume flow rate is the volume of fluid that flows
past a given cross sectional area per second. Therefore,
V = Aѵ
V = Volume Flow Rate
A = Cross Section Area
Ѵ = Velocity of Fluid
Standard SI Unit is m3/hr
Other Common Units :
1L/s = 103 cm3/s = 10-3 m3/s
1gal/s = 3.788 L/s = 0.003788 m3/s
1cf/min = 4.719x10-4 m3/s

Volumetric Flowmeters
• DP
• Turbine
• Vortex / Swirl
• Magnetic
• Target
• Ultrasonic
• Displacement
• Note: can be inferred mass with compensating transmitter

Definition of Quantities to be Measured
Mass Flow Rate
The definition of mass flow rate is the number of kilograms of
mass flow that flows past a given cross sectional area per second.
Therefore,
m = ρV = ρAѵ
m = Mass Flow Rate
ρ = Specific Density
V = Volume Flow Rate
A = Cross Section Area
Ѵ = Velocity of Fluid
Standard SI Unit is kg/hr

Differential Positive Velocity Mass Open-
Pressure Displacement Channel
Orifice Plate Reciprocating Turbine Coriolis Weir
Venturi Tube Piston Vortex Shedding Thermal Flume
Flow Tube Oval Gear Swirl
Flow Nozzle Nutating Disk Conada Effect &
Pitot Tube Rotary Vane Momentum
Elbow Tap Exchange
Target Electromagnetic
Variable- Ultrasonic,
Area(Rotameter) Doppler
Ultrasonic,
Transit-Time

Types of Measurement
Direct Rate Measurement
Required large device if the volume rates are high. And in case a
smaller device is used then the measured values will not be
accurate.
Fluctuations in the measuring values due to the opening/closing of
valves during start/stop of the measurements.
Devices that measure the volume/mass of the fluid and the timing
may not be concurrent.

Types of Measurement
Direct Rate Measurement

Type of Measurement
Indirect Rate Measurement
For many practical applications, indirect measuring techniques are
employed using various kind of principles.
Here are some of the basic working principles:
Differential Pressure
Force on Bodies in the Flow
Heat Transfer
Corriolis Force
Magneto-Inductive
Frequency of Vortices
Ultrasonic

Type of Flowmeters
1. Correlation Method 13. Rotary Vane
2. Corriolis 14. Swirl
3. Elbow Tap “Elbow Meter” 15. Target
4. Electro-Magnetic 16. Thermal Dispersion
5. Flow Nozzles 17. Turbine
6. Flow Tube 18. Ultrasonic Doppler
7. Nutating Disk 19. Ultrasonic Transit Time
8. Orifices 20. Variable Area
9. Oval Gear 21. Venturi Tube
10. Pitot Tube 22. Vortex
11. Positive Mass 23. Weir & Flume
12. Reciprocating Piston
Type of Flowmeters
Industrial Flowmeter Usage

Sensors: How do we measure fluid flow?
The most frequently used flow sensor is the orifice meter.

What is the basic principle for this device?
FC
liquid
cooling How can we

use this
behavior to
measure
flow?
Velocity
increases;
Bernoulli says
Principles of the orifice meter
P Measure pressure drop

orifice
pressure
P =P1 –
orifice
P3
Distance 
Sensors: Principles of the orifice meter
Nice visual display of concept.

In practice, pressure difference
is measured by a reliable and
electronic sensor =
P orifice
v = velocity
Relate the
pressure drop F = volumetric flow rate
to the flow rate f = frictional losses
= density
A = cross sectional area
Bernoulli’s
eqn.
General meter
eqn.
0 = aver. density
Installed orifice C0 = constant for
meter specific meter
(requires density
measurement)
Installed orifice F  K P1  P3 Most common flow
calculation, does not
require density
meter measurement
(assuming constant density)

Sensors: Principles of the orifice meter
When an orifice meter is used, the
calculations in yellow are performed.
Typically, they are not shown on a process
“Measured value” to flow controller drawing.
Multiply signal by
meter constant K K FC
Take square root

of measurement 
Measure
pressure
difference P
liquid
cooling
Sensors: Are there limitations to orifices?
v = velocity
Relate the
pressure drop F = volumetric flow rate
to the flow rate f = frictional losses
= density
A = cross sectional area
General meter
eqn.
Cmeter We assume that the meter

coefficient is constant. The
flow accuracy is acceptable
only for higher values of
flow, typically 25-100% of
Reynolds number for an orifice
the maximum
Sensors: Is there a downside to orifices?
What is a key
disadvantage of
the orifice meter?
Ploss = P1 – P2
Pressure loss!
pressure
When cost of
P =P1 –
orifice Non- pressure increase (P1)
P3 recoverabl by pumping or
e pressure
drop compression is high,
we want to avoid the
“non-recoverable”
Distance 
pressure loss.
Sensors: Factors in selecting an orifice meter
Accuracy • Typically, 2-4% inaccuracy
• Strongly affected by density changes from base case
Repeatability • Much better than accuracy
Reproducibility • Much better than accuracy
Span • Accuracy limited to 25-100% of span
• Span achieved by selecting diameter of orifice and Porifice
Reliability • Very reliable, no moving parts
Linearity • Must take square root to achieve linear relationship
between measured signal and flow rate
Maintenance • Very low
Process • Turbulent, Single liquid phase, no slurries (plugging)
Environment • Straight run of pipe needed (D= pipe diameter),
10-20D upstream, 5-8D downstream
Dynamics • Nearly instantaneous
Safety • Very safe
Cost • Low equipment (capital) cost, large number of suppliers
• High operating cost (non-recoverable pressure loss)
Venturi Meter
In the venturi meter velocity is increased and the pressure

decreased in the upstream cone. The pressure drop from
points F to I can be used to measure the rate of flow through
the meter. Venturi meters are most commonly used for
liquids, especially water.
Ventrui meter
Mass Balance
2
 Sb   Db 
Va  Vb    Vb    Vb  2
 Sa   Da 
Venturi Meter
Mechanical Energy Balance
ˆ
2
 2 2


W   bVb   aVa  gz   pb  pa   h f
1 1
0 0 0
So with Mass Balance Result
 2 pb  pa 
 b   a  Vb 
4
 2

Venturi Meter
Solving for the neck velocity Vb
1 2 pa  pb 
Vb 
b   a 4 
To account for small differences in a and b introduce a

correction factor Cv = 0.98 – 0.99.
Cv 2 pa  pb 
Vb 
1  4 
Venturi Meter
Since friction cannot be eliminated in the venturi meter a permanent loss in
pressure occurs. Because of the small angle of divergence in the recovery
cone, the permanent pressure loss is relatively small (about 10% of the
venturi differential pa–pb).
Orifice Meter
The orifice meter consists of an accurately machined and drilled

plate concentrically mounted between two flanges. The position
of the pressure taps is somewhat arbitrary.
Orifice Meter
The orifice meter has several practical advantages when
compared to venturi meters.
• Lower cost
• Smaller physical size
• Flexibility to change throat to pipe diameter
ratio to measure a larger range of flow rates
Disadvantage:
• Large power consumption in the form of
irrecoverable pressure loss
Orifice Meter
The development of the orifice meter equation is similar to that of
the venturi meter and gives:
C0 2 pa  pb 
V 
1  4 
q  V S0
where:
 = ratio of orifice diameter to pipe diameter ≈ 0.5 usually
S0 = cross sectional area of orifice
–
V = bulk velocity through the orifice
C0 = orifice coefficient ≈ 0.61 for Re > 30,000
There is a large pressure drop much of which is not
recoverable. This can be a severe limitation when
considering use of an orifice meter.
Pressure Loss in
Orifice Meters
Comparison
Venturi Orifice
High Capital Cost Low Capital Cost
Low Operating Cost High Operating Cost

(good p recovery) (poor p recovery)
Not Flexible More Flexibility
(β fixed) (interchangeable)
Large Physical Size Compact
Type of Flowmeters
Orifice, Nozzle & Venturi “Differential Pressure”
Basic Equation v = Fluid Velocity
Q = Volume Flow Rate
A = Cross Sectional Area of Pipe
m = Mass Flow Rate
k = Constant
h = Differential Pressure
p = Density of Fluid
The (lateral) pressure exerted by an

incompressible fluid varies inversely
with the square of the speed of the
fluid.

Type of Flowmeters
Orifice, Nozzle & Venturi “Differential Pressure”
Basic Equation QA = Flow (m3/hr)

A) Liquid Volumetric QB = Flow (Nm3/hr) at 0 0C & 1.013 bara
QC = Flow (kg/hr)
S = Specific Gravity (Air = 1)
B) Gas Volumetric
D = Density at actual conditions (kg/m3)
A = Pipe Internal C.S.A (cm2)
Tf = Actual Temperature (0C)
Pf = Actual Pressure (bara)
C) Liquid/Gas Mass K = TORBAR Coefficient (See Table)
The orifice, nozzle and venturi flow

meters use the Bernoulli’s Equation
to calculate the fluid flow rate by
using the pressure difference
between an obstruction in the flow.

Type of Flowmeters
Bernoulli’s Equation
For Pitot Tube:
P + ½ρѵ2 + ρgh = Constant

If no change in the elevation, ρgh = 0 = z
And point 2 is stagnation point, i.e. ѵ2 = 0
P = Static Pressure
ρ = Density of Fluid
v = Velocity of Fluid
g = Gravitational Acceleration (9.81m/s2)
h = Height

Rotameters
Rotameters fall into the category of flow
measurement devices called variable area meters.
These devices have nearly constant pressure and
depend on changing cross sectional area to indicate
flow rate. Rotameters are extremely simple, robust
devices that can measure flow rates of both liquids
and gasses.
Fluid flows up through the tapered tube and suspends

a ‘float’ in the column of fluid. The position of the
float indicates the flow rate on a marked scale.
Rotameters
Three types of forces must be accounted
for when analyzing rotameter
performance:
Buoyancy
• Flow
• Gravity
Gravity
• Buoyancy
For our analysis neglect drag effect
Flow
Rotameter
Mass Balance
Assume Gradual Taper
V1S  V2 S
Q
V1  V2 
S
Flow Between Float and Tube
Q S
V3   V1
S  S f  S3
S3 is annular flow area at plane 3
Rotameter
Momentum Balance
Note:
• p3 = p2
• Must account for force due to float
 QV3  V1    p1  p2 S   gzS  V f   f gV f
p  S  gV f b   
2
 Q 1   
 gz   
 S  S3  S 
Rotameter
Mechanical Energy Balance
p
ˆ 1 2
 
W  V3  V1  gz 
2
2

 hf
0
V32 (Base velocity head on
Assume: hf  KR
2 smallest flow area)
p 
1 2  S 
2
 S 
2

 gz  V1  V1    K RV1   
2
  2
 2  S3   S3  
 
Rotameter
Combining Momentum and Mechanical Energy Balance
 Q
2
 S  gV f b    1  Q  2
S 
2
  1       1  1  K R   
S  S3  S  2 S    S3  
 
After Some Manipulation
S Sf 2 gV f  f  
Q  S3
1  K R S S f  
2
Sf
Rotameter
Assuming Sf ≈ S a discharge coefficient can be
defined
C R  1  K R 
1 2
2 gV f  f  
Q  S 3C R
Sf 
CR must be determined experimentally. As Q increases the float rides higher, the

assumption that Sf = S is poorer, and the previous expression is more nearly
correct.
Type of Flowmeters
Thermal Mass
Q = WCp (T2-T1) and therefore
W = Q/Cp (T2-T1)
Q = Heat Transfer
W = Mass Flow Rate
Cp = Specific Heat of Fluid
T1 = Temperature Upstream
T2 = Temperature Downstream

Type of Flowmeters
Thermal Mass

Type of Flowmeters
Thermal Mass

Type of Flowmeters
Turbine
Working Principle
Reluctance
The coil is a permanent magnet and the turbine blades are made of a material attracted to
magnets. As each blade passes the coil, a voltage is generated in the coil. Each pulse
represents a discrete volume of liquid. The number of pulses per unit volume is called the
meter's K-factor.
Inductance
A permanent magnet is embedded in the rotor, or the blades of the rotor are made of
permanently magnetized material. As each blade passes the coil, it generates a voltage pulse. In
some designs, only one blade is magnetic and the pulse represents a complete revolution of the
rotor.
Capacitive
Capacitive sensors produce a sine wave by generating an RF signal that is amplitude-modulated
by the movement of the rotor blades.
Hall-Effect
Hall-effect transistors also can be used. These transistors change their state when they are in the
presence of a very low strength (on the order of 25 gauss) magnetic field.

Turbine Meter
Measure by determining RPM of turbine (3) via sensor (6).

Turbine meters accurate but fragile.
Type of Flowmeters
Turbine

Type of Flowmeters
Turbine

Type of Flowmeters
Turbine

Type of Flowmeters
Electromagnetic
The operation of magnetic flow meters is based on Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction. Magflow meters can detect the flow of conductive fluids only. Early
magflow meter designs required a minimum fluidic conductivity of 1-5 microsiemens
per centimeter for their operation. The newer designs have reduced that requirement
a hundredfold to between 0.05 and 0.1.
E = BDV/C
E = Induced Voltage
B = Magnetic Field Strength
D = Inner Diameter of Pipe
V = Average Velocity
C = Constant

Type of Flowmeters
Electromagnetic
The magnetic flow meter’s coil can be powered by either alternating or direct
current.
In AC excitation, line voltage is applied to the magnetic coils and as a result, the flow
signal (at constant flow) will also look like a sine wave. The amplitude of the wave is
proportional to velocity. Addition to the flow signal, noise voltages can be induced in
the electrode loop. Out-of-phase noise is easily filtered, but in-phase noise requires
that the flow be stopped (with the pipe full) and the transmitter output set to zero.
The main problem with ac magflow meter designs is that noise can vary with process
conditions and frequent re-zeroing is required to maintain accuracy.
And as for DC excitation designs, a low frequency (7-30 Hz) dc pulse is used to
excite the magnetic coils. When the coils are pulsed on the transmitter reads both
the flow and noise signals. In between pulses, the transmitter sees only the noise
signal. Therefore, the noise can be continuously eliminated after each cycle.

Type of Flowmeters
Electromagnetic
Today, DC excitation is used in about 85% of installations while AC types
claim the other 15% when justified by the following conditions:
• When air is entrained in large quantities in the process stream.

• When the process is slurry and the solid particle sizes are not uniform.
• When the solid phase is not homogeneously mixed within the liquid.
• When the flow is pulsating at a frequency under 15 Hz.

Type of Flowmeters
Electromagnetic
E = Induced Voltage
B = Magnetic Field Strength
D = Inner Diameter of Pipe
V = Average Velocity
C = Constant
E = BDV/C
C is a constant to take care of the engineering proper units

Type of Flowmeters
Electromagnetic

Mass Flowmeter
Direct Measurement
• Thermal Dispersion
• Coriolis
Coriolis Mass Flowmeter
Coriolis
Coriolis
CORIOLIS
ADVANTAGES
• Direct Mass Measurement
• High Accuracy
• Additional Density Measurement
• Uneffected By Flow Profile
DISADVANTAGES
• High Purchase Price
• High Installation Cost
• Size Limitations
• Vibration Sensitive
Type of Flowmeters
Corriolis
The principle of angular momentum can be best described by Newton’s 2nd Law of angular
motion and the definitions using these following notations:
Newton’s 2nd Law of angular motion states that
γ = Iα and defines that H = Iω and since by definition I = mr2
Then γ = mr2α and then H = mr2ω
Since α = ω/t then becomes γ = mr2 * ω/t and solving mass flow rate, m/t we get
m/t = γ/r2ω also divide H = mr2ω by t then H/t = m/t * r2ω
H = Angular Momentum
I = Moment of Inertia
ω = Angular Velocity
Y = Torque
α = Angular Acceleration
r = Torque of Gyration
m = Mass
t = Time

Type of Flowmeters
Corriolis

Type of Flowmeters
Corriolis

Type of Flowmeters
Corriolis

Coriolis Meters
When fluid is passed through a U-bend, it imposes a force on the tube wall
perpendicular to the flow direction (Coriolis force). The deformation of the
U-tube is proportional to the flow rate. Coriolis meters are expensive but
highly accurate.
Thermal Dispersion
Thermal Dispersion Mass Flowmeter
• Gas application only

• Relatively inexpensive
• Easy to install and remove under pressure
• Accuracy 0.5%
• Turndown, 100:1
• Capable of monitoring extremely low flows
• True mass flow meter (compensates for
temperature/pressure)
Type of Flowmeters
Positive Displacement
Positive displacement meters provide high accuracy, ±0.1% of actual flow rate in
some cases and good repeatability as high as 0.05% of reading. Accuracy is not
affected by pulsating flow unless it entrains air or gas in the fluid. PD meters do not
require a power supply for their operation and do not require straight upstream and
downstream pipe runs for their installation. Typically, PD meters are available 1” up
to 12” in size and can operate with turndowns as high as 100:1, although ranges of
15:1 or lower are much more common. Slippage in the flowmeter is reduced and
metering accuracy is therefore increased as the viscosity of the process fluid
increases.
The process fluid must be clean. Particles greater than 100 microns in size must be
removed by filtering. PD meters operate with small clearances between their
precision-machined parts; wear rapidly destroys their accuracy. For this reason, PD
meters are generally not recommended for measuring slurries or abrasive fluids. In
clean fluid services, however, their precision and wide rangeability make them ideal
for custody transfer and batch charging. They are most widely used as household
water meters. Millions of such units are produced annually at a unit cost of less than
US$50. In industrial and petrochemical applications, PD meters are commonly used
for batch charging of both liquids and gases.

Type of Flowmeters

Type of Flowmeters

Vortex / Swirlmeter
VORTEX / SWIRLMETER
ADVANTAGES
• No Moving Parts
• For Liquid, Gas, or Steam
• Uneffected by Pressure, Temperature, or
Density Changes.
• Wide Rangeability
DISADVANTAGES
• Span Limitations Due to Viscosity
• Flow Profile Sensitive (Vortex)
Type of Flowmeters
Vortex
Types of Working Principles
1. Vortex Shedding
2. Vortex Precession
3. Fluidic Oscillation (Coanda Effect)

Vortex Flow Meter
(Vortex Shedding)
Vortex Meter
Principle of Operation
Q=VxA
Vortex
Type of Flowmeters
Vortex
Vortex shedding frequency is directly proportional to the velocity of the fluid in the pipe and
therefore to volumetric flow rate. The shedding frequency is independent of fluid properties such
as density, viscosity, conductivity, etc., except that the flow must be turbulent for vortex shedding
to occur. The relationship between vortex frequency and fluid velocity is:
St = f (d/v)
Q = AV = (AfdB)/St
Q = fK
St = Strouhal Number
f = Vortex Shedding Frequency
d = Width of the Bluff Body
A = Cross Sectional Area
V = Average Fluid Velocity
B = Blockage Factor
K = Meter Coefficient

Type of Flowmeters
Vortex
The value of the Strouhal number is determined experimentally, and is generally
found to be constant over a wide range of Reynolds numbers. The Strouhal number
represents the ratio of the interval between vortex shedding (l) and bluff body width
(d), which is about six. The Strouhal number is a dimensionless calibration factor
used to characterize various bluff bodies. If their Strouhal number is the same, then
two different bluff bodies will perform and behave similarly.

Type of Flowmeters
Vortex Shedding
St = Strouhal Number
f = Vortex Shedding Frequency
d = Width of the Bluff Body
A = Cross Sectional Area
V = Average Fluid Velocity
B = Blockage Factor
K = Meter Coefficient
Q = AV = (AfdB)/St

Type of Flowmeters
Vortex Shedding

very sensitive pressure sensor

Advantages:
• No moving parts to wear
• No routine maintenance required
• Can be used for liquids, gases, and steam
• Stable long term accuracy and repeatability
• Lower cost of installation than traditional orifice-type meters
• Available in a wide variety of temperature ranges from -300F
to roughly 800F
• Bar-like bluff design allows particulates to pass through
without getting clogged
• Available for a wide variety of pipe sizes
• Available in a wide variety of communication protocols
Disadvantages:
• There are only a couple of things to watch out for when
considering a vortex meter. First, they are not a good choice
for very low fluid velocities, and therefore cannot be
recommended below about 0.3 ft/sec. At this low flowrate, the
vortices are not strong enough to be picked up accurately.
• In addition to the above, be aware that a minimum length of
straight-run pipe is required upstream and downstream of the
meter for the accurate creation of vortices within the
flowmeter. Ten pipe diameters before and after the point of
installation are typically recommended, but the minimum
length could be greater if there are elbows or valves nearby.
This is only a disadvantage if the installation area does not
99
allow for this straight run of pipe. September 23, 2004
Applications
• Custody transfer of natural gas metering
• Flow of liquid suspensions
• Higher viscosity fluids
• Steam measurement
• General water applications
• Chilled and hot water
• Water/glycol mixtures
• Condensate measurement
• Potable water
• Ultrapure & de-ionized water
• Acids
10
0
• Solvents September 23, 2004
Swirlmeter/Vortex Precession
Principle of Operation
Preamplifier
Housing
Swirler Deswirler
Sensor
Backflow
r = local radius
VA = axial velocity of flow
VT = angular velocity of flow
p = static pressure
Type of Flowmeters
Vortex Precession
Vortex Precession

2
Swirlmeters
Benefits
• High Accuracy 0.50% of Rate
• No Moving Parts
• Minimal Upstream Piping
• Measures Low Flows
• Versatile
• Electronics can be used for Diagnostics
• Works with Entrained Liquids
Swirlmeter
Cut-Away View
Technical Data
n Measures liquids, gases and steam
n Available integral, remote, or flow
computer electronics
n Accuracy ±0.50% rate
n Sizes 0.75" thru 16.0"
n Minimal upstream piping req.
n Flow as low as 1 GPM
n Excellent in light gas applications
Installation Length
Swirlmeter
Swirlmeter Vortex 4
Process
control valve
5D 1D 50 D 5D
90° elbow
3D 1D
25 D 5D
min. 1.8 D
Reduction
3D 1D
15 D 5D
The Coandă effect /ˈkwɑːndə/ is
Type of Flowmeters the tendency of a fluid jet to be
Fluidic Oscillation (Coanda Effect) attracted to a nearby surface
1. Fluidic Oscillation (Coanda Effect)

6
When passing from the inlet to
the outlet the flow is going
alternately through the right and
the left “leg”. This is because of
the “Coanda effect”.
In the U-shaped connecting
channel there is a sensor which
transform the frequency to an
electrical signal amplified by the
converter.

7
8
Type of Flowmeters
Ultrasonic
Ultrasonic waves travel in the same manner as light or microwaves however being an
Elastic waves, they can propagates through any substance like solid, liquid and
gases. And by utilizing the properties of ultrasonic waves, clamp on flowmeters with
unique feature of being able to measure fluid flow in the pipe externally was
developed.
Generally, ultrasonic flowmeters works in 2 different kind of principles:
1) Doppler Effect Ultrasonic Flowmeter

The Doppler Effect Ultrasonic Flowmeter uses reflected ultrasonic
sound to measure the fluid velocity. By measuring the frequency shift
between the ultrasonic frequency source, the receiver and the fluid
carrier. In this the relative motion are measured. The resulting
frequency shift is named the ”Doppler Effect”.
2) Transit Time Difference Ultrasonic Flowmeter

With the Time of Flight Ultrasonic Flowmeter the time for the sound to
travel between a transmitter and a receiver is measured. This method
is not dependable on the particles in the fluid.

9
DOPPLER EFFECT

0
Type of Flowmeters Upstream Sensor
Ultrasonic
Kdt
Vf =
TL D θf Q
Cross Average Cf
Sectional Velocity
Area on C.S.A
Downstream
ҴD2 1 D ΔT τ/2 τ/2 Sensor
Q= x x x
4 K sin2θf (T0 - Ҭ)2 T1
T2
Average
Velocity
Q = Flow Rate on Propagation
D = Inner Pipe Diameter Path
K = Conversion Factor of Average Velocity
Θf = Incident angle into liquid
T1 & T2= Transit time
T0 = Transit time between sensors when flow is at rest ≒ (T1+ T2 )/2
Ҭ = Transit time in pipe walls and sensors = ΔT = T2－T1
Note that ultrasonic waves are carried with the motion of fluid

1
The Doppler effect is the frequency shift that occurs when a sound source
(transmitter) is in relative motion with a receiver of that sound source. In the
case of a Doppler flowmeter, we have two sensors mounted or strapped on the
outside of a pipe. One of the sensors is the transmitter, and transmits a high
frequency (ultrasonic) signal into the pipe. This signal is reflected off particulate
matter or entrained gas bubbles in the fluid. The reflected signal is then picked
up by the receiving signal and the frequency difference between the transmitted
and reflected signals is measured and correlated into an instantaneous flowrate
2 or flow total (Figure above).
The frequency is subject to two velocity changes; one upstream
and the other downstream. Traveling upstream, the velocity of the
wave is given as (Vs - V cosθ) where Vsequals the velocity of
sound in the fluid, V equals the average fluid velocity and θ
equals the angle of the ultrasonic beam to the fluid flow.
Similarly, the downstream velocity is given as (Vs + V cosθ). The
Doppler relationship between the reflected and transmitted
frequencies can now be expressed as:
fr = ft[(Vs+V cosθ)/(Vs - V cosθ)]
Here, fr is the received frequency and ft is the transmitted

frequency.

3
To further simplify this equation, one can
assume that the velocity of the fluid in the pipe is
much lower than the velocity of sound in the
pipe; that is,
V << Vs. With this assumption, one can write:
fr = ft[(Vs + V cosθ)/Vs + (V cosθ)]/Vs
Which reduces further to
fr = ft[1 + (2V cosθ)/Vs]
4
The frequency shift is given by Δf = fr-ft so that
Δf = [2(ft) cosθ/Vs]V
Because (2ft cosθ/Vs) is a constant, one can write
the final equation as
Δf = kV
where
k = 2(ft) cosθ/Vs

5
The Transit-Time Flowmeter
Design Overview: Like its Doppler cousin,
transit-time meters utilize an ultrasonic pulse that
is projected into and across the pipe. The design
works on a slightly different principle, however.
The basic premise of the transit-time meter is to
measure the time difference (or frequency shift)
between the time of flight down-stream and the
time of flight up-stream. This frequency shift can
then be correlated into a fluid flowrate through
the pipe. To help explain one type of transit-time
11
design, Figure 4a shows two transducers
September 23, 2004
6
attached to a pipe.
In this figure, V is the average fluid
velocity, Z is the distance from the
upstream transducer to the
downstream transducer, and q is the
angle between the ultrasonic-beam
line and the horizontal fluid flow.
The time it takes for the ultrasonic
signal to go from the upstream
transducer to the downstream
transducer can be written as
tdown = Z/(Vs + V cosθ)
where Vs is the velocity of sound
through the liquid.

7
The upstream time can be written
as (Figure 4b):
tup = Z/(Vs - V cosθ)
Because the upstream and
downstream frequencies can be
generated in proportion to their
respective transit-times, we can say
the following:
fdown = 1/tdown
and
fup = 1/tup
where fdown and fup represent the
downstream and upstream
frequencies respectively.
8
The change in frequency can then be given as
Δf = fdown - fup = 1/tdown - 1/tup
By substitution, one obtains
Δf = (Vs + V cosθ)/Z - (Vs - V cosθ)/Z = (2
cosθ/Z)V
Since (2 cosθ/Z) is just a constant, one can write
the final equation as
Δf = kV
with
k = 2 cosθ/Z
9
Type of Flowmeters
Ultrasonic

0
Type of Flowmeters
Ultrasonic

1
Advantages:
• Easy installation—transducer set clamps onto pipe
• No moving parts to wear out
• Zero pressure drop
• Can detect zero flow
• No process contamination
• Works well with clean and ultrapure fluids
• Works with pipe sizes ranging from 1" to 200"
• No leakage potential
• Meters available that work with laminar, turbulent, or transitional flow
characteristics
• Battery powered units available for remote or field applications
• Sensors available for pulsating flows
• Advanced software and datalogging features available
• Insensitive to liquid temperature, viscosity, density or pressure variations
2
•
Disadvantages:
Transit-time flowmeter performance can suffer from pipe-wall
interference, and accuracy and repeatability problems can
result if there are any air spaces between the fluid and the pipe
wall. Concrete, fiberglass and pipes lined with plastic can
attenuate the signal enough to make the flowmeter unusable.
Because these factors can vary from one design to the next, it
is advisable to check with the manufacturer to ensure that the
pipe material is appropriate.
• As mentioned before, the transit-time meters will not operate
on dirty, bubbly, or particulate-laden fluids. Sometimes, the
purity of a fluid may fluctuate so as to affect the accuracy of
the flow measurement. For such cases, there are hybrid meters
on the market that will access the fluid conditions within the
pipe and automatically chose Doppler or transit-time
operations where appropriate. These units are especially useful
12 if the unit is to be used in a wide variety of different
September 23, 2004
3
applications which may range from dirty to clean fluids.
Applications:
• Transit-time meters have wide applicability for flow measurement of clean
or ultrapure streams. Some of these applications are listed below.
• Clean water flowrate in water treatment plants
• Hot or cold water in power plants, airports, universities, shopping malls,
hospitals and other commercial buildings
• Pure and ultra-pure fluids in semiconductor, pharmaceutical, and the food
& beverage industries
• Acids and liquefied gases in the chemical industry
• Light to medium crude oils in the petroleum refining industry
• Water distribution systems used in agriculture and irrigation
• Cryogenic liquids
• Gas-stack flow measurement in power plant scrubbers

4
Selection of Flowmeters
Ultrasonic Electromagnetic Differential Pressure Vortex
Fluid    
Gas X X  
Measuring
Media Vapor X X  
Slurry X  X X
Control    
Application Monitor    
Supply X  X X
Temperature -40 to 200 °C -20 to 120 °C -40 to 600 °C -10 to 200 °C
Operating Pressure - -1 to 2MPa -0.1 to 42MPa 5MPa
Condition
Pressure Loss None None Yes Yes
Rangeability Large Large Large Large
Bore  13 ~ 6,000mm 2.5 ~ 300mm 25 ~ 3,000mm 4 ~ 100mm
Installation Upstream/Downstrea 10D/5D 5D/2D 10D/5D 7D/3D
Condition m
Piping Works Not Required Required Required Required
Explosion Proof  X  X
Accuracy  0.5 % of Rate  0.5 % of Rate  2.0 % of FS  1.0 ~ 3. 0 % of Rate
Performance Velocity Range -32 to 32m/s 0 to 15m/s - 0.3 to 4m/s

5
Flow Measurement Information
Useful links:
a) http://www.iceweb.com.au/Technical/flow_measurements_info_notes.htm
b) http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/49.html
c) http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/49_530qframed.html
d) http://www.torbar.co.uk/calcdata.htm
e) http://thcentral.com/fluiddynamicscalcs.htm

6
Questions & Answers

7
The End

8

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1 September 23, 2004

2 September 23, 2004

Attribute Bubble Doppler Transit-Time Vortex Magnetic

6 September 23, 2004

•HOW MUCH (TOTAL)

• HOW FAST (RATE)

Idealized Real World

Pipe Velocity Profile

9 September 23, 2004

Laser - induced florescence image

Simulation of turbulent flow coming out of a

n Velocity profile is a predictable function of

n Reynolds Number (RE)– A single dimensionless

* Usually inside pipe diameter.

ѵs = Mean Fluid Velocity,

13 September 23, 2004

n RE >3000 Turbulent ***

*** Well documented & proven fully

Volume = Area x Length

Mass = Volume x Density

Flow Rate 1000 cfm 1000 cfm

There is a 6% error just by changing density /

18 September 23, 2004

19 September 23, 2004

• Note: can be inferred mass with compensating transmitter

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23 September 23, 2004

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25 September 23, 2004

27 September 23, 2004

The most frequently used flow sensor is the orifice meter.

cooling How can we

P Measure pressure drop

Nice visual display of concept.

(assuming constant density)

Take square root

Cmeter We assume that the meter

In the venturi meter velocity is increased and the pressure

So with Mass Balance Result

To account for small differences in a and b introduce a

The orifice meter consists of an accurately machined and drilled

Low Operating Cost High Operating Cost

The (lateral) pressure exerted by an

47 September 23, 2004

Basic Equation QA = Flow (m3/hr)

The orifice, nozzle and venturi flow

48 September 23, 2004

P + ½ρѵ2 + ρgh = Constant

And point 2 is stagnation point, i.e. ѵ2 = 0

49 September 23, 2004

Fluid flows up through the tapered tube and suspends

For our analysis neglect drag effect

CR must be determined experimentally. As Q increases the float rides higher, the

57 September 23, 2004

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60 September 23, 2004

Measure by determining RPM of turbine (3) via sensor (6).

62 September 23, 2004

63 September 23, 2004