ECOLOGY

A Mangrove Excursion

Dr John Hey
 Ecology is the
INTERACTION
of organism and environment
 A local ecosystem
Welcome to a virtual field trip of a
mangrove swamp!
Biotic and Abiotic Factors
Abiotic factors are the non-living
components that effect the living
organisms of the community.

The Biotic Factors of an ecosystem

consist of the living organisms which
share the same environment.
The abiotic components of an ecosystem
include both physical and chemical factors.

The physical factors include:

• sunlight and shade
• average temperature
• average precipitation and distribution
• wind
• latitude and altitude
• nature of soil (for terrestrial ecosystems)
• fire (for terrestrial ecosystems)
• water current (for aquatic ecosystems)
• amount of suspended solid material (for
aquatic ecosystems)
The abiotic components of an ecosystem include
both physical and chemical factors.
The chemical factors are:
1. level of water and air in soil
2. level of plant nutrients dissolved in soil
moisture (for terrestrial) and in the water
(for aquatic)
3. level of natural or artificial toxic substances
dissolved in soil moisture and in water
4. salinity of water for aquatic ecosystems
5. level of dissolved oxygen in aquatic
ecosystems
 Biotic Factors

Organisms that make up the biotic

component of an ecosystem are usually
classified as autotrophs and
heterotrophs, based on how they get
their food or organic nutrients they
need to survive.
 Abiotic Factors
of the Mangrove Environment

Mangrove is a general term that covers trees that are able

to withstand regular flooding with fresh and salt water.
Measuring Abiotic Factors

The term abiotic refers to the non-

living or physical components of an
ecosystem. In this virtual excursion we
are going to look at three abiotic
factors:
         Salinity
         Temperature
         Oxygen  
Measuring Abiotic Factors

To navigate through this virtual

excursion you should use the
navigation box on the next slide.
Abiotic factor Biotic factors

Salinity Native Plants

Temperature Size of Plant Population

pH Size of Animal Population

Oxygen Quadrat

Capture Recapture

Transect

Trophic Levels
Measuring Abiotic Factors
Salinity
Salinity is a measurement of the
amount of salt in water.

Use a salinity
meter to take
salinity
measurements.
Measuring Abiotic Factors
Temperature
The movement of the tides and the
exposure at low tides means that there is
a large variation in temperature every day.

Temperature
can be
measured using
a datalogger .
Measuring Abiotic Factors
Temperature -Close up of datalogger
with temperature probe .
 Measuring Abiotic Factors
pH –Student measuring pH using a data
logger .
Measuring Abiotic Factors
Oxygen
The  level of oxygen is an important
abiotic factor in aquatic ecosystems.

Oxygen content
can be
measured using
a datalogger .
 Table of water quality results for three sites.

Site Temp oC Salinity (ppt) pH Dissolved O2

1 16 24.2 8.3 61%
2 17 3.5. 9.2 47%
3 15.5 0.2 7.4 75%
The table below contains the results from the
temperature readings taken over ten hours.
Time Temp oC
9.00am 17
10.00am 17
11.00am 17.5
12.00am 18
1.00pm 19
2.00pm 19
3.00pm 19
4.00pm 19
5.00pm 19
6.00pm 19
7.00pm 18
 Biotic Factors
of the Mangrove Environment

The organisms which share the same environment. The

Mangrove Community.
 Native
Plants
Click on picture for more
information
 The Narrow-leafed Wilsonia

The Narrow-leafed Wilsonia (Wilsonia backhousei) is a

slightly woody-textured ground-creeper or ‘subshrub’, with
thin, dark green leaves about 1–2 cm long. The plant has little
branchlets which grow no more than 15 cm high. It has small
tubular flowers, with star-like white faces less than 1 cm wide
 Miniature Pigface
(Lampranthus tegens)

The Miniature Pigface is a low ground-creeper, usually

less than 5 cm high, with succulent leaves about 1 cm
long and triangular in cross section. It has pinkish
mauve flowers with a ring of many ‘petals’ and a
diameter a bit smaller than a 20 cent coin.
Sydney Blue Gum (Eucalyptus saligna)

The Sydney Blue Gum is a

stately tree that takes its
name from its bluish green
trunk. It has a tassel of
thick light brown bark
around its base and can
grow to 50 or 60 metres.
Sydney Golden Wattle (Acacia longifola)

It grows to about five

metres, flowers in
winter, and has dense
spikes of golden
flowers. It has thin,
leathery leaves, known
as phyllodes which
grow vertically so they
expose less surface to
the sun.
Swamp She-oak (Casuarina glauca)

Swamp She-Oaks can

grow up to 20 metres
high, and because they
are very hardy, are often
planted as street trees.
Paperbark/Tea Tree
(Melaleuca decora)

Melaleuca is a common tree

that grows in many types of
country, including wetlands
and woodlands, in sandy
soil, along river flats, even in
some rocky areas.
 Turpentine
(Syncarpia glomulifera)

The Turpentine is a tall, handsome tree and can reach up to

40 metres in height. It carries a good canopy of shiny deep
green leaves and under optimal conditions, has a straight
trunk with thick stringy bark.
Estimating the size of a plant population
No. of
The plant population we are Quadrat juvenile
going to estimate is juvenile mangroves
(young) mangrove trees. We 1 4
estimate the number of 2 3
trees by using the random 3 8
quadrat method. A 1 metre
4 0
square quadrat was placed
5 7
randomly in an area
6 5
containing juvenile mangrove
trees. A stick was thrown 7 2

over the shoulder and where 8 6

the stick landed was the 9 5
bottom corner of the 10 6
quadrat. Total 46
Estimating the size of an animal population
Random quadrat
The animal population we are
going to estimate is a
crustacean commonly called a
nipper. These animals live in
holes in the ground and at low
tide it is easy to count the
holes. By using a random
quadrat you can take 10
measurements and then
calculate  the average number
of holes per square metre. The
average is then multiplied  by
the area covered with the
nipper holes.
Estimating the size of an animal population
A quadrat as the name
suggests is usually a
square. A metre square is
a convenient size to use. 
This is a picture of a
smaller quadrat

Now I want you to count

the number of nipper
holes that appear in the
following images.
Estimating the size of an animal population

Quadrat 1
Quadrat 2

Now go to the next page

 Estimating the size of an animal population
Quadrat # Nipper Holes
1
2
3
4 30
5 24
6 36

Quadrat 3 7 22
8 12
9 27
10 23
Total

Now complete the table

Estimating the size of an animal population

Take the total and divide by ten which is

the number of quadrats you took.  This
will give you the average.
Average =
The total area of nipper holes is 100
metre x 130 metre  =   1300sq metre
Multiply this by the average in 1 square
metre.
Your estimate for the total population is
Estimating the size of an animal population
Capture/Recapture
This method of sampling is most useful
when dealing with an animal population
that moves around. In this method
individual animals are marked or tagged
and then released back into the
environment. After leaving time for
dispersal the population is then
resampled and the number of tagged
animals in the sample gives an estimate of
the entire population.
Estimating the size of an animal population

The following equation is used to estimate

the population
    Population =  M  x  n
                           m
Where M = number of captured tagged and
released organisms
                n =  number samples the second
time (tagged and untagged)
                m = the average number of
tagged animals recaptured
Estimating the size of an animal population

In this field study we are going to

estimate the number of a species of 
leatherjacket. This is a good species to
catch because they survive netting well.
Other species can be killed by the process
of netting so they would have to be
sampled in another way.
Estimating the size of an animal population
The leatherjackets were sampled using the
netting method shown below.
Estimating the size of an animal population
The netting was done three times and each
time 10 Leatherjacket were caught and
tagged. Therefore the total of tagged fish
was 30. After a week the area was
resampled and out of 30 leatherjackets
caught 5 were tagged.
Distribution  of a plant and animal species

You have been looking at the abundance of

organisms. The distribution of the
organism is another important part of the
ecosystem.  The abiotic factors of the
ecosystem in  conjunction with the biotic
factors control the distribution of
organisms.
Distribution  of a plant and animal species
Using a Transect
The same area that was sampled by using
the random quadrat method can also be
sampled using a transect. A transect is a
straight line that is taken through an
area.  Sampling can be taken continuously
or at predetermined distances along the
line.
On the next page is a transect picture
through a saltmarsh.
Salt marsh with students and measuring tape along
transect
One way to investigate plant distribution is by of a 'transect'.
A quadrat
We set up a series of tapes
running from the track
towards the bay and then
laid down a 250 mm square
'quadrat' made of wire every
2 metres along the tape so
that the quadrat is on the
East side of the tape and has
its rear corner on the metre
mark. Observing the plants
contained by the quadrat, it
is possible to estimate the
proportion of the ground
which is covered by each
species, and to record the
result in the table provided
In the example shown, the
cover scores were Sarcocornia
3, Sporobolus 2
 Producers Consumers Decomposers
On your field trip you need to observe the
organisms that inhabit the study area. Below is a
table that lists the organisms that were
observed.  To see photographs click on the names
in the table.  You have to create food chains
from these organisms and then combine the food
chains into a food web. To help you do this there
is a table for you to fill in. Fill in the table as you
look at the organisms below. When you have
completed the table draw a food web for this
ecosystem.
Producers Consumers Decomposers
Producers Consumers Decomposers
Mangrove Nippers
Zostera Leatherjacket
Sargassum Bream

Phytoplankton Whiting
Heron

Cormorant
Ibis

Oyster
Soldier Crab
Sea Eagle
Mangrove Uses               The sun
Eaten by         detritus, insects

Avicennia marina -the Grey Mangrove is a shrub to

medium sized tree with a well defined trunk.
 Zostera

Uses               The sun

Eaten by         detritus
 Sargassum

Uses               The sun

Eaten by         detritus
 Phytoplankton

Input               Sun
Eaten by        oysters, zooplankton, prawns
 Nippers

Eats                 detritus, phytoplankton, zooplankton

Eaten by          crabs, bream, whiting, herons, ibis
 Leatherjacket

Eats                  detritus, phytoplankton, zooplankton

Eaten by          crabs, bream, whiting, herons, ibis
 Bream

Eats                soldier crabs, nippers

Eaten by         humans, herons, ibis
 Whiting

Eats                soldier crabs, nippers

Eaten by         humans, herons, ibis
 Heron

Eats                soldier crabs, nippers, small bream and whiting

Eaten by          Eggs eaten by other birds, foxes
 Cormorant

Eats                soldier crabs, nippers, whiting, bream

Eaten by          sea eagle
 Ibis

Eats                soldier crabs, nippers

Eaten by         humans, herons
 Oyster

Eats                phytoplankton, zooplankton, detritus

Eaten by         humans, herons, ibis
 Soldier crab

Eats                  detritus
Eaten by          bream, whiting, herons, ibis
 Sea eagle

Eats                 fish, snakes, rabbits, ducks, offal, carrion.

Eaten by          humans,foxes
 Zooplankton

Eats              Detritus, phytoplankton

Eaten by       Crabs, prawns, fish
 Bacteria

E. coli
Uses               Detritus
Eaten by         Crabs, prawns, fish
 Fungus

Uses               detritus
Eaten by         crabs, prawns
 Interactions Table

Organism Consumes or eats Consumed or eaten by

Small fish seagrass heron
1. Iron Bark
2. Red Rumped Parrot
3. Lathams Snipe
4. Green and Golden Bell
Frog
5. White Bellied Sea
Eagle
6.
Narrow-leafed Wilso
nia

7. Miniature Pigface
 Native
Animals
Click on picture for more
information
Grey Headed Flying-Fox
(Pteropus poliocephalus

The grey headed flying fox is

the largest flying fox in
Australia, weighing up to one
kilogram, with a wingspan of
around 1.6 metres and a flying
speed of 35 kilometres an
hour. Often known as fruit
bats, they are the only species
with a mantel of reddish brown
fur around their neck. They
have large eyes, a fox like
head, thin membrane wings
and a claw on the first and
second digit of each wing,
which it uses when hanging at
rest. They also have excellent
night vision.
 Blue-Tongued Lizard (Tiliqua scincoides)
The Blue-Tongue has a large wedge shaped head, four very
short legs, a narrow neck and a smooth-scaled, stocky
body with a pattern of brown and grey bands. Its common
name comes from its bright blue tongue, which it flicks in
and out when on the move or when danger approaches.
 White-Bellied Sea-Eagle (Haliaeetus leucogaster)
They are large birds, weighing up to four kilograms, with a
wingspan around two metres. Both male and female are
similar in appearance, with dark grey feathers on their back
and most of their tail, and white on the rest of the body. The
claws are black and the bill is blue-grey and black at the tip.
 Tawny Frogmouth (Podargus strigoides

Tawny Frogmouths like to live

in eucalypt woodland and they
actually look like the branch of
the trees that grow there. They
are about 340-460mm in length,
with softly mottled grey and
brown feathers. They have no
distinctive markings, except for
the white spots on their dark
brown wings, which can only
be seen when the wings are
spread.
 Red-Rumped Parrot (Psephotus haematonotus)
Only the male of this attractive bird has a red rump. It’s a dull
red though, as the birds have predominantly green plumage.
There are also bluish shades on the back and wings of the
male, with touches of white on the tail feathers. The bill is
black, the eyes dark brown eyes and the legs grey.
The female is different
again. Her head and
upper body is an olive
green, her neck and
breast dull yellowish-
olive, with white touches
on her abdomen and
under-tail feathers. Her
rump is green and her bill
is grey.
 Long Necked Turtle (Chelodina longicollis
Turtles have webbing between their toes, while tortoises
have clubfeet or toes with no webbing and no flippers.
Mature females measure around 16 cm, while the males
are slightly smaller at 14-15cm. Tiny turtles can be
captivating, with big eyes, a little head, and bright orange
spots on their legs, neck and tiny shell.
Introduced
Plants
 Castor Oil Plant (Rinicus communis)
This annual short-lived perennial shrub can grow to
about 3 metres in height. It has reddish clusters of
flowers which bloom in late summer in temperate
regions and later in the rainy season in tropical areas.
The plant thrives in the dry inland as well as the humid
coast. In fact, it thrives just about everywhere!

The seeds contain ricin,

a highly poisonous
toxin, which is now
removed during the
production of Castor
Oil. If a few seeds are
eaten by humans, they
may result in death.
Bitou Bush (Chrysanthemoides monolifera)
ssp. rotundata

The Bitou Bush has attractive flowerheads with up to 13

yellow petals and egg-shaped fruits. Except on young
plants, the leaves are hairless and covered with a
cottony down. Leaf edges are not usually serrated.
Balloon Vine (Cardiospermum grandiflorum)

You can't miss Balloon Vine with its large, inflated and
hairy capsules that can grow up to 8cm ling. Contrasting
with these strange appendages are the 4-petalled white
flowers that bloom for most of the year.
 Cotoneaster (Cotoneaster glaucophyllus)

The Cotoneaster is an evergreen shrub which grows to 4

metres high. It is often seen growing as a hedge or an
ornamental in many domestic gardens. A native of China, it
is one of a number of species that have become naturalised
in Australia. Cotoneaster is appreciated for its fleshy red
berries.
 Japanese Honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica)

This beautiful climbing vine, with its fragrant yellow, red

and white flowers is a popular plant that can be seen
climbing on fences and trees throughout the suburbs
 Cotoneaster (Cotoneaster glaucophyllus)

The Cotoneaster is an evergreen shrub which grows to 4

metres high. It is often seen growing as a hedge or an
ornamental in many domestic gardens. A native of China, it
is one of a number of species that have become naturalised
in Australia. Cotoneaster is appreciated for its fleshy red
berries.
 Primrose Willow (Ludwigia peruviana)
At times, the Primrose Willow grows up to 4 metres tall. While
bright yellow and quite 'showy', the solitary flowers last for
only a day. These flowers are produced in succession in leaf
axils at the end of stems. The leaves are alternate, hairy and
spear shaped and grow to between 4 and 12cm long. The
plant's many small pepper-like seeds are contained in 4 to 5
rows within a capsule.
European Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus)

Blackberry is a highly invasive weed that infests wide

areas of temperate Australia. It has taken over at least 8.8
million hectares of pastures and natural ecosystems. It is
a woody plant that can grow five metres high with prickly
canes that stretch to seven metres.
Camphor Laurel (Cinnamomum camphora)

An Asian native, this tree

was first recorded in Sydney
in 1822 where it was planted
for its rounded shady
canopy and its scented
wood. Camphor Laurel is
fast growing, about one
metre a year for the first few
years, reaching a height of
about 20 metres.
 Green Cestrum (Cestrum parqui)
It is highly poisonous, often
mistakenly called Deadly
Nightshade, though many
farmers, whose stock have
died after eating the berry,
might think this a perfectly
good description. Its
clusters of greenish yellow
flowers smell foul, like
urine, by day, and gives off
a fragrance at night.
Cestrum plants form into
dense scrub that grows up
to three metres high, with
brittle stems and shiny
green leaves. These, too,
have a foul smell when
crushed.
 Lantana (Lantana camara)

Lantana beds down anywhere it finds a warm climate and

high rainfall. As with many ornamental plants introduced to
Australia, it had a respectable beginning, first recorded in
1841 in the Adelaide Botanic Gardens. Once it escaped
garden confines, however, it went wild, scrambling and
climbing through rainforests, Eucalypt Woodlands, gullies,
and farms.
 Morning Glory (Ipomea indica)

Once established, Blue Morning Glory takes off, spreading

every which way - to wasteland and bushland, roadsides and
wetlands, anywhere it can find a handy peg for its trailing
stems, heart shaped leaves and trumpet shaped flowers. It
springs up everywhere, a purple invader smothering the
natives along the way.
Pampas Grass (Cortaderia jubata)

Pampas Grass is a
perennial grass that forms
tussocks, usually around
two to three metres high. It
has leaves like thin blades
that taper to a fine tip. Its
dense plumes of flowers
stand erect on stout hollow
stems that stand proud of
the leaves. The flowers
appear in late summer and
are a pinkish colour at the
start, fading gradually to
brown.
Broad-leaf Privet (Ligustrum lucidum)
Small-leaf Privet (Ligustrum sinense)

Both kinds of Privet were

attractive ornamentals for
gardens and parks. The
Broad-Leaf Privet grew into
a handsome tree, up to ten
metres high.
The Small-Leaf Privet is
less grand, a dense bushy
scrub that could be
trimmed and shaped to
provide the privacy and
security of a fence.
 Salvinia (Salvinia molesta)
Salvinia is sterile and produces no seeds. Instead, it
keeps reproducing from fragments that form daughter
plants. No matter how much it is broken up, this water
plant continues to grow, with large fragments simply
drifting away to start their own colony.
Salvinia is so aggressive that it
has spread to all the mainland
states, including the Northern
Territory where it has invaded
Kakadu National Park
wetlands.
Introduced Animals
Dogs
Dogs are one of Australia’s most
popular domestic animals.
Approximately 40% of Australian
households own a dog and there
is a great variety of breeds and
mixed breeds on the streets of
our towns and cities. When
poorly supervised or left to roam
wild, dogs have been known to
destroy native flora and fauna. To
minimise the damage caused by
dogs, dogs should be registered,
micro-chipped and well looked
after.
Cats
More than 26% of Australian
households have a cat as a pet
and they provide people with a lot
of joy and entertainment.
However poor control and the
abandonment of these animals
has resulted in a large feral cat
population. Due to their instinct
for the hunt, feral cats cause
significant harm to native birds
and animals.
Other Introduced Animals
A large number of animal
species was introduced to the
Australian environment with
the arrival of the First Fleet in
1788. Species including cats,
rabbits, pigs, foxes and
rabbits were introduced and
have since had a huge
negative impact on native
flora and fauna. The
management of the species is
a high priority so that future
generations of Australians can
enjoy the bush as past
generations have done.