Organizational Behaviour 3

Perception
Perceptual Process
Johari Window
Effect of perception on decision making
Attitude and Behaviour
Perceptual errors

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Perception

“ We don’t see things as they are , we see things as

we are.”
A process by which individuals organize and interpret their
sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their
environment.

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Perceptual Challenges:
What Do You See?

Exhibit 8.5
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What is Perception?

Perception-The process through which people select, organize,

and interpret what they see, hear, touch, smell, and taste to
give meaning and order to the world around them.

“ Perception is the process of receiving information about and

making sense of the world around us. It involves deciding
which information to notice, how to categorize this
information and how to interpret it within the framework of
existing knowledge.

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Perception Process
 Perception Process: Cognitive process used to make
sense out of the environment (3 steps)
 Observe information via senses
 Screen information & select what to process
 Organize selected data into patterns

 Perceptual Selectivity: process by which individuals

screen and select various stimuli that vie for their attention
 Primacy
 Recency

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Perception
 Perception - The process by which individuals connect to
their environment. A complex physical and psychological
process . A “sense-making” process

 Personality- The collection of psychological

characteristics or traits that determines a person’s
preferences and individual style of behavior.

 Culture-The way in which a society as a whole perceives

the world and how it should operate.

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The Role of Perception

The process of ascribing meaning to messages and events is

strongly influenced by the perceiver’s current state of mind, role,
and comprehension of earlier communications.
We interpret our environment in order to respond appropriately
The complexity of environments makes it impossible to process
all of the information
We develop shortcuts to process information and these
shortcuts create perceptual errors
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 4
Factors Influencing Perception
Perceiver
Interpretation is heavily influenced
By personal characteristics of the perceiver

Target
Characteristics in the target can affect
What is perceived
Insert Figure 4.1 here

Situation
The context in which we see objects
Elements in the surrounding environment
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Influence our perceptions
Factors That
Influence
Perception

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 The Perceptual Process
Environmental Stimuli

Feeling Hearing Seeing Smelling Tasting

Selective Attention Individual’s

Values
and Beliefs
Perceptual Organization

Emotions and Behavior

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From “Self Awareness” by McShane
&
The Perceptual Process

1. Sensation - An individual’s ability to detect stimuli in the immediate

environment.
2. Selection - The process a person uses to eliminate some of the
stimuli that have been sensed and to retain others for further
processing.
3. Organization -The process of placing selected perceptual stimuli
into a framework for “storage.”
4. Translation - The stage at which stimuli are
interpreted and given meaning
1. Closure - The tendency to organize perceptual stimuli so that,
together, they form a complete message.

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The Perceptual Process

3. Organization- placing selected perceptual stimuli into a

framework for “storage.”
 Stimuli become associated when they :
1. Are similar in physical resemblance.
2. Occur in close physical (space) proximity.
3. Occur in close time proximity.
4. Used for figure-ground differentiation.
5. Used together to achieve closure—a perception of the
whole or to piece together a message.

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Field-ground differentiation

Field-ground differentiation
The tendency to distinguish
and focus on a stimulus that
is classified as figure as
opposed to background.

Factory –wheel barrow and hay

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The Perceptual Process

5. The tendency to
organize perceptual
stimuli so that,
together, they form
a complete
message.

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Why Is Perception Important?

 Perception -The process by which we become aware of,

and give meaning to, events around us.
 Perception helps define “reality.”
 Objective reality— what truly exists in the physical
world to the best abilities of science to measure it.
 Perceived reality— what individuals experience
through one or more of the human senses, and the
meaning they ascribe to those experiences.
 Behavioral problems arise when an individual’s
perceived reality does not match objective reality.

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Why Is Perception Important?

 People’s behavior is based on their perception of

what reality is, not on reality itself. The world as it is
perceived is the world that is behaviorally important.
 We Study Perceptions to understand how people
make attributions about events.
 We don’t see reality. We interpret what we see and
call it reality.

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Managers and perception
 Own Your Perceptions
 Recognize why your perceptions might be different.
 Realize that others might not share your perceptions

 User Perception Checks - A perception check is a tool that

gauges the accuracy of your perceptions by engaging in
conversations with others
 Describe the behavior you’ve observed
 Acknowledge that there is more than one way to interpret
the behavior
 Ask for clarification

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Johari Window
 The Johari Window is a communication model - used to
improve understanding between individuals.
 Developed by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham ( “Johari”
from Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham).
 Two key ideas behind the tool:
 Individuals can build trust between themselves by
disclosing information about themselves.
 One can learn about him/herself and come to terms with
personal issues with the help of feedback from others.

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Daryl Bems Self-Perception Theory

 “Attitudes are used after the fact to make sense out

of an action that has already occurred.”
 Individuals make inferences about attitudes by
perceiving their behavior.
 Behaviors inform us about our attitudes.
 Especially true if our attitudes are unclear.
 Both cognitive dissonance and self-perception theory
explain connection between attitudes and behavior

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 Self Perceptions: The Johari Window

Relationship from A’s position

Known to A Unknown to A
Known to B
Relationship from B’s position

B’s unshared data

Openly shared data One way to
A’s blind spots conceptualize
the possible
combinations of
what you know
about yourself
and what others
Unknown to B

Unknowns in the know about

A’s unshared data you.
relationship
B’s blind spots
Future potential

Source: This model is a modification of the “Johari Window, “ a concept presented

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in J. Luft. 1970. Group Processes. Palo Alto, CA: National Press Books. 21
Johari Window

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Johari Window

 Using the Johari model,

Each person is represented by their own four-quadrant, or

four-pane, window.
Each window contains and represents personal information
- feelings, motivation - about the person.
Shows whether the information is known or not known by
themselves or other people.

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Johari Window
The four quadrants
 Quadrant 1: Arena/public -Open Area - Known by the person
about him/herself - also known by others.
 Quadrant 2: Blind Area, or "Blind Spot"unknown to the person
about him/herself but others know.
Simple information or deep issues (Eg: feelings of inadequacy,
incompetence, unworthiness, rejection)
Difficult for individuals to face directly, and yet can be seen by others.
 Quadrant 3: Façade/ Hidden - person knows about him/herself
that others do not.
 Quadrant 4: Unknown Area/potential - unknown to the person
about him/herself - unknown to others.
 Luft advocates changing the shape of the window so that quadrant 1 enlarges
while all the others become smaller

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Self disclosure
 Group members must choose between openly
expressing their thoughts and feelings and concealing or
distorting inner feelings, thoughts, or perceptions.
 Activity- Mobile phone ring tones - discussion
 Explain the reason for partner’ choice of ring tone (or
lack of interest in a 'personal' ring tone),
 Offer some comment as to what this might suggest
about partner’s personality and style.
 Ring tones are for many people an expression and
extension of personality

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Activity- Mobile phone ring tones

Link Ring tones and discussion with the

Johari Window and
develop mutual awareness.

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When Is Self-Disclosure Appropriate?

 Luft (1969) proposes the following guidelines:

1. When it is a function of the ongoing relationship.
2. When it occurs reciprocally.
3. When it is timed to fit what is happening.
4. When it concerns what is going on within and between persons in the
present.
5. When it moves by relatively small increments.
6. When it is confirmable by the other person.
7. When account is taken of the effect disclosure has on the other person(s).
8. When it creates a reasonable risk.
9. When it is speeded up in a crisis.
10. When the context is mutually shared.

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Johari Window- Key points
 Aim in groups should be to develop the Open Area for every
person.
 Working in this area with others usually allows for enhanced
individual and team effectiveness and productivity.
 The Open Area is the ‘space’ where good communications
and cooperation occur, free from confusion, conflict and
misunderstanding.
 Self-disclosure - process by which people expand the Open
Area vertically.
 Feedback- process by which people expand open area
horizontally.
 To build stronger teams - Encourage healthy self-disclosure
and sensitive feedback.
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Managers and Perception
communication
 Perception and communication : Our perceptions, the process of
assigning meaning to sensory information and experiences, of others
guide the way we talk to and about them
 The power that perceptions have in guiding communication makes them
particularly important to understand and manage
 Perceptions are the basis for decisions about how to communicate
appropriately and effectively. How we perceive people or events will
influence our responses to them

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Effect of perception on decision making
 Perceptions are the basis for decisions
 Managers’ Inaccurate perceptions - lead to bad decisions
and inappropriate actions

 Bad decisions include:

1) not hiring qualified people
2) failing to promote top-performing subordinates
3) promoting poorly performing managers because they have
the same “diversity profile”

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 Vodafone Executive Grahame Maher

Vodafone executive
Grahame Maher keeps
his perceptions in focus
by discarding the
executive suite and
working alongside
employees every day.
Bob Finlayson/Newspix

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Attitude and Behaviour
 Self-Fulfilling Prophecy : A concept that proposes a person will
behave in ways consistent with how he or she is perceived by others.
 Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion the sculptor )Power of expectation.
 Manager believes an employee is not very hard working all his/her
verbal and non verbal communication will convey this message to the
employee.
 In the long run perfect hardworking employee will become lazy
Eg: My fair lady

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The Accuracy of Perceptions
 The perceptual process does not always yield accurate
perceptions.
 The accuracy of perceptions is critical, however, for a
number of managerial functions.
 Motivating subordinates
 Treating subordinates fairly and equitably
 Making ethical decisions
 Managers who understand perceptions, how they are
formed, and what influences them are in a good position
to ensure that their perceptions are as accurate as
possible.

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Perceptual Errors
 Errors in perceptual judgment arising from
inaccuracies in any part of the perceptual process

 Four major perceptual errors:

1. Stereotyping
2. Halo effects
3. Selective perception
4. Projection

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Perceptual Errors

1. Stereotyping: very common distortion - assigning

attributes to a person solely on the basis of his/her
membership in a particular social or demographic
category
2. Halo effect: a cognitive bias. Perception of one trait is
influenced by the perception of another trait (or several
traits) of that person or object. Eg: Student who is
Regular
one or two prominent traits—"overshadow" other traits, similar
to the radiation of light in optical halo effects or Horns
effect (Reverse halo) - Negative qualities overshadow
positive qualities

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Perceptual Errors
3. Selective perception -The selection of things consistent
with one’s own personal viewpoint and the rejection of things
that are inconsistent with that viewpoint;

3. Projection:
A. Arises out of a need to protect one’s own self-concept
B. People assign to others the characteristics or feelings that
they possess themselves

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Perceptual Errors
 Culture - Perception is also affected by the cultural
context of interaction
 Perceptual Defense
 A. Tendency of perceivers to protect themselves by
disregarding ideas objects, or people that are
threatening to them. Retention of existing beliefs that
conflict with new information.
B. The perceiver singles out information that supports
a prior belief but filters out contrary information

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Attribution Theory
 Describes how people explain the causes of their own
and other people’s behavior.
 Focuses on why people behave the way they do and
what can be done to change their behavior.
 Attributions can be made about the self or another
person.
 Perceptions - making accurate attributions is critical.
Biases or errors can reduce the accuracy of attributions.

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Insert Figure 4.3 here

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Attributional Biases
 Fundamental Attribution Error = tendency to underestimate
the influence of external factors on another’s behavior and to
overestimate the influence of internal factors
 Actor-observer effect - The tendency to attribute the behavior
of others to internal causes and to attribute one’s own behavior
to external causes.
 Self-serving Bias = tendency to overestimate the contribution
of internal factors to one’s success and the contribution of
external factors to one’s failures

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Improving Perceptions

 Empathy - Sensitivity to the feelings, thoughts, and

situation of others
 Self-awareness - Awareness of your values, beliefs and
prejudices. Applying Johari Window.
 Be open.

 Don't jump to conclusions - biased by first impression

 Perception should be on performance and skills ability

and job behaviour

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Assignment

1. What is perception?

2. What causes people to have different

perceptions of the same situation?

3. Does perception really affect outcomes?

4. What is personality and how does it affect

behaviour?
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