1.

Centrifugal Force
2. Thrust Bending Force
3. Torque Bending Force
4. Aerodynamic Twisting Force
5. Centrifugal Twisting Force
Centrifugal force can be described as the force
tending to pull the blades out of the hub.

The amount of stress created by centrifugal

force can be more than 7,500 times the weight
of the propeller blade.
Thrust bending force tends to bend the propeller
blades forward at the tips. Because propeller
blades are typically thinner near the tip, thrust
produced at the tip tends to flex the blade forward.

Thrust bending force opposes centrifugal force to

some degree.
Torque bending forces occur as air resistance
opposes the rotational motion of the propeller
blades. This force tends to bend the blades
opposite the direction of rotation.
Aerodynamic twisting force tends to increase a
propeller's blade angle. When a propeller blade
produces thrust, the majority of the thrust is
exerted ahead of the blade's axis of rotation.

In some cases, aerodynamic twisting force is used

to help change the blade angle on a propeller.
When a propeller rotates, centrifugal force tends to
align the propeller's center of mass with its center
of rotation. A propeller's center of mass is typically
ahead of its center of rotation; therefore, when a
propeller rotates, centrifugal force tends to
decrease its blade angle.
When a propeller produces thrust, blade vibration
occurs due to the aerodynamic and mechanical
forces. These include aerodynamic forces that tend
to bend the propeller blades forward at the tips as
well as the mechanical power pulses in a
reciprocating engine.
Propellers are commonly classified by the
method used to establish pitch.

Typical classifications include:

1.Fixed-pitch
2.Ground-adjustable
3.Controllable-pitch
4.Constant-speed
5.Reversible
6.Feathering.
Fixed-pitch propellers enable an aircraft to
produce optimum efficiency at a specific
rotational and forward speed.
A fixed-pitch propeller with a low blade angle,
often called a climb propeller, provides the
best performance for takeoff and climb.

A fixed-pitch propeller with a high blade

angle, often called a cruise propeller, is
adapted for high speed cruise and high altitude
flight.
Ground-adjustable propellers are similar to fixed-
pitch propellers in that their blade angles cannot
be changed in flight. However, the propeller is
constructed to permit the blade angle to be
changed on the ground. This type of propeller was
used primarily on aircraft built between the 1920s
and 1940s.
Controllable-pitch propellers have an advantage
over ground-adjustable propellers in that the
operator can change blade angle while the
propeller is rotating. This enables the operator to
change propeller blade angle to achieve improved
performance for a particular flight condition.
Depending on design, the number of pitch
positions might be limited (as with a two-
position controllable propeller) or the pitch
might be adjustable to any angle between a
minimum and maximum pitch setting.
Constant-speed propellers, sometimes
referred to as automatic propellers, maintain
the rotational speed selected by the pilot.
Pitchcontrol is provided by a device known as
a governor. A typical governor uses oil
pressure to control blade pitch.

Constant speed propeller systems provide

maximum efficiency by letting the pilot set the
ideal propeller blade angle for most flight
conditions.
Reversible-pitchpropellers are a further
development of the constant-speed propeller.
On aircraft equipped with a reversible
propeller, the propeller blades can be rotated
to a negative angle to produce reverse thrust.

Thisforces air forward instead of backward

and permits a shorter landing roll and
improved ground maneuvering.
Most multi-engine aircraft are equipped with a
propeller that can feather. A feathering propeller
is a type of constant-speed propeller that has
the ability to rotate the propeller blades so that
the leading edge of each blade is pointed
straight forward into the wind.
The only time a pilot would select the feather
position is if an engine fails. Placing the blades
in the feather position eliminates much of the
drag associated with a wind milling propeller.