Oleo Chemicals Engineer

October 12th, 2019

Compression theory is primarily defined by the Ideal Gas Laws, First Laws
& Second Laws Thermodynamics.
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed during a process (such as compression and delivery of a
gas), although it may change from one form of energy to another.

𝑄 = 𝑊 + ∆𝐸
The second law of thermodynamics is more abstract and can be stated in
several ways.
1. Heat cannot, of itself, pass from a colder to a hotter body.
2. Heat can be made to go from a body at lower temperature to one at
higher temperature only if external work is done.
3. The available energy of the isolated system decreases in all real
processes.
4. Heat or energy (or water), of itself, will flow only downhill

Basically, in thermodynamics, a measure of the unavailability of energy

has been devised and is known as entropy.
𝑄
𝑑𝑆 = 𝑑
𝑇
Note that entropy increases as a system loses heat but remains constant
when there is no gain or loss of heat (as in an adiabatic process).
Ideal Gas obeys the simple equation of state :
𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇
where :
P = absolute pressure, psia (kPa)
v = specific volume, in3/lb (m3/kg)
T = absolute temperature, ºR (ºK)
R = gas constant, 1545.35 ft.lbf/lbm.ºR (8.3144 J/kmol.ºK)
The specific heat of a gas is the heat carrying capacity in a process. Two
different types of specific heats are used in the analysis of compressible
flow machines: specific heats at constant volume ( 𝑐𝑣 ) and constant
pressure (𝑐𝑃 ).
𝐶𝑝 𝑀𝐶𝑝 𝑀𝐶𝑝
𝑘= = =
𝐶𝑣 𝑀𝐶𝑣 𝑀𝐶𝑝 − 1.986
Values of 𝛾 for some commonly used gases and vapors in engineering
applications are: 1.4 (air), 1.264 - 1.4 (superheated steam),1.67
(helium), 1.13 - 1.30 (Freon - 21), 1.33 (products of combustion)
The two specific heats and the gas constant for an ideal gas are related by
the following equation:
𝑀𝐶𝑝 − 𝑀𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅 = 1.986
1
𝑀𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅
𝑘−1
𝑘
𝑀𝐶𝑝 = 𝑅
𝑘−1
To predict the properties of real gases more accurately, the perfect gas
law is often modified by the addition of an empirical value ‘‘Z’’, called the
compressibility factor of gasses.
𝑃𝑣 = 𝑍𝑅𝑇
Where Z can be calculated from
𝑍 3 − 𝑍 2 + 𝐴 − 𝐵 − 𝐵2 𝑍 − 𝐴𝐵 = 0
Where
𝑃𝑅
𝐴 = 0.42748 2.5
𝑇𝑅
𝑃𝑅
𝐵 = 0.08664
𝑇𝑅
Where
𝑃
𝑃𝑅 =
𝑃𝐶
𝑇
𝑇𝑅 =
𝑇𝐶
TR = Reduced Temperature
PR = Reduced Pressure
TC = Critical Temperature
PC = Critical Pressure
T = Observed Temperature
P = Observed Pressure
Compressors are mechanical devices used to increase the pressure
of air, gas or vapor and in the process move it from one location to
another.

Pic 1. Type of compressors

Dynamic compressor is continuous flow compressor is
characterized by rotating impeller to add velocity and thus pressure
to fluid. It is widely used in chemical and petroleum refinery industry
for specific services.
There are two types of dynamic compressors
 Centrifugal Compressor
 Axial Flow Compressor

How do centrifugal compressors work?

 Achieves compression by applying inertial forces to the gas by
means of rotating impellers.
 It is multiple stage ; each stage consists of an impeller as the
rotating element and the stationary element, i.e. diffuser
 Fluid flow enters the impeller axially and discharged radially
 The gas next flows through a circular chamber (diffuser), where it
loses velocity and increases pressure.
Pic 2. Multiple stage centrifugal Pic 3. Single stage centrifugal
compressors compressors
How do axial flow compressors work?
 Working fluid principally flows parallel to the axis of rotation.
 The energy level of air or gas flowing through it is increased by the
action of the rotor blades which exert a torque on the fluid
 Have the benefits of high efficiency and large mass flow rate
 Require several rows of airfoils to achieve large pressure rises
making them complex and expensive

Pic 4. Axial flow compressors

Positive displacement compressors causes movement by trapping
a fixed amount of air then forcing (displacing) that trapped volume
into the discharge pipe. It can be further classified according to the
mechanism used to move air :
 Rotary Compressor
 Reciprocating compressor

How do rotary compressors work?

 The gas is compressed by the rotating action of a roller inside a
cylinder.
 The roller rotates off-center around a shaft so that part of the roller is
always in contact with the cylinder.
 Volume of the gas occupies is reduced and the refrigerant is
compressed.
 High efficient as sucking and compressing refrigerant occur
simultaneously.
Pic 5. Rotary compressors
How positive displacement compressors work?
 Uses pistons driven by a crankshaft to deliver gases at high
pressure.
 The intake gas enters the suction manifold, then flows into the
compression cylinder
 It gets compressed by a piston driven in a reciprocating motion via
a crankshaft,
 Discharged at higher pressure
Pic 6. Positive displacement compressors
 Table 1. Advantages of compressors
Centrifugal
Lower installed first cost where
pressure and volume are favorable
Lower maintenance cost
Greater continuity service and
dependability
Less operating attention
Greater volume capacity per unit of
plot area
Adaptability to high-speed low-
maintenance-cost drivers
Positive Displacement
Greater flexibility in capacity and
pressure range
Higher compressor efficiency and
lower power cost
Capability of delivering higher
pressures
Capability of handling smaller
volumes
Less sensitive to changes in gas
composition and density
Table 2. Dynamic compressors
Compressors Advantages Disadvantages
Centrifugal • Wide operating range • Instability at reduced
• High reliability flow
• Low Maintenance • Sensitive to gas
composition change

Axial • High Capacity for • Low Compression ratios

given size • Limited turndown
• High efficiency
• Heavy duty
• Low maintenance
Table 3. Positive displacement compressors
Compressors Advantages Disadvantages
Reciprocating • Wide pressure • Heavy foundation required
ratios • Flow pulsation
• High efficiency • High maintenance

Diaphragm • Very high pressure • Limited capacity range

• Low flow • Periodic replacement of
• No moving seal diaphragm

Screw • Wide application • Expensive

• High efficiency • Unsuitable for corrosive or
• High pressure ratio dirty gases
Pic 7. Compressors cycle
 3 2’ 2 2”
P2 PV  C
(Isothermal)
PV   C
(Adiabatic)
Pressure

PV n  C
4 1 (Polytropic)
P1

V2 V1
Volume
Operations :
4 – 1 : Volume V1 of air aspirated into compressor, at P1 and T1.
1 – 2 : Air compressed according to PVn = constant
From P1 to P2 → Temp increase from T1 to T2.
2 – 3 : Compressed air at P2 and V2 with temperature T2 is delivered.
During compression, due to the excess temperature above
surrounding, the air will exchange the heat to the surrounding. As
Compressor is a work consuming device, every effort is desired to
reduce the work.

Work Done = Area under P-V Curve

 1 – 2” = Adiabatic compression (Max Work)
1–2 = Polytropic compression
 1 – 2’ = Isothermal compression (Min Work)
Isothermal compression
𝑃1 . 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 . 𝑉2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Near-Adiabatic (Isentropic) compression (reversible state)

𝑃1 . 𝑉1𝑘 = 𝑃2 . 𝑉2𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Where k is specific heat ratio

Polytrophic compression (irreversible state)

Similarly, adiabatic compression is never obtained exactly, since some
heat is always rejected or added. Actual compression therefore takes
place along a polytrophic cycle
𝑃1 . 𝑉1𝑛 = 𝑃2 . 𝑉2𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
The exponent n is determined experimentally for a given type of machine
and may be lower or higher than the adiabatic exponent k. In positive
displacement compressors, n is usually less than k.
𝑛–1
Either n or 𝑛 can also be experimentally calculated from test data if
inlet and discharge pressures and temperatures are known.
𝑛−1
𝑇2 𝑃2 𝑛
=
𝑇1 𝑃1
High Pressure needed by Single Stage
 Requires heavy working parts.
 Has to accommodate high pressure ratio.
 Increased balancing problems.
 High Torque fluctuations.
 Requires heavy Flywheel installations.

Why do we need Multiple Stage?

 High temp rise leads into limitation for the maximum achievable
pressure rise.
 Discharge temperature shall not exceed 150ºC and should not
exceed 1350C for hydrogen rich services
 A multistage compressor compresses air to the required pressure in
multiple stages.
 Intercoolers are used in between each stage to removes heat and
decrease the temperature of gas so that gas could be compressed to
higher pressure without much rise in temperature
Multiple Stage Compressor
Series arrangement of cylinders, in which the compressed air from
earlier cylinder (i.e. discharge) becomes the intake air for the next
cylinder (i.e. inlet).
LP = Low Pressure
IP = Intermediate Pressure
HP = High Pressure
Intercooler = Compressed air is cooled between cylinders.

Intercooler Air Delivery

LP IP HP
Cylinder Cylinder Cylinder

Intercooler

Air Intake
Pic 8. Compressors cycle Pic 9. Compressors cycle
single stage multiple stage
CALCULATION
Thus, comparison between the Isothermal Work and the Actual Work is
important.
isothermal work
Isotermal Efficiency, 𝜂𝑖𝑠𝑜 =
actual work
Thus, more the Isothermal Efficiency, more the actual compression approaches
to the Isothermal Compression.
Actual Work
Wact = Area 4-1-2-3-4
Wact = Area (4-1) – Area (1-2) – Area (2-3) P 3 2’ 2 2”
2 PV  C
P V  P1V1 (Isothermal)
 P1V1  2 2  P2V2
n 1 PV   C
(Adiabatic)
 P V  P1V1 
 P1V1  P2V2    2 2  PV n  C
 n 1  P1
4 1 (Polytropic)
 PV  P2V2 
 P1V1  P2V2    1 1 
 n  1  V2 V1
CALCULATION
Isothermal work done / cycle = Area of P – V Diagram

P2
Isothermal work done = P1 V1 ln
P1
P
P1 V1 ln P2 N
1
Isothermal Power = kW
60x1000

Isothermal Power
Compressors efficiency=
Indicated Power
Isothermal Power
Isothermal efficiency=
Shaft Power
Where
Indicated Power = Power obtained from the actual indicator card
taken during a test on the compressor.
Shaft Power = Brake power required to drive the compressors
CALCULATION
How to increase Isothermal Efficiency?
A. Spray Injection
Assimilation of water into the compressor cylinder towards the
compression stroke.
Function = Object is to cool the air for next operation
Disadvantages
1. Requires special gear for injection
2. Injected water interferes with the cylinder lubrication
3. Damage to cylinder walls and valves
4. Water must be separated before delivery of air

B. Water Jacketing
Circulating water aroun the cylinder to help for cooling the air during
compression

C. Intercooling
Suitable for high speed and high Pr ratio. Compressed air/gases from
earlier stage is cooled to its original temperature before passing to
the next stage
CALCULATION
How to increase Isothermal Efficiency?
D. External Fins
For small compressor, fins on external surface are useful

E. Cylinder Proportions
Short stroke and large bore provides much greater surface for
cooling. Cylinder head surfaces is more effective than barrel surface.
CALCULATION
Adiabatic Efficiency is ratio of power required to drive the compressor
compared with the area of the hypothetical indicator diagram (assuming
adiabatic compression).

k−1
k P2 𝑘
P V 1−
k−1 1 1 P1
ηadiabatic =
Shaft Power

Mechanical Efficiency is ratio of mechanical output to mechanical

input

Indicated Power
ηmech =
Shaft Power

Where
Shaft Power = Brake power required to drive the compressor
CALCULATION
Compressor capacity (Q) is expressed as the actual volumetric
quantity of gas at the inlet to each stage of compression on a per
minute basis (ICFM).

From SCFM
14.7 𝑇1 𝑍1
𝑄 = 𝑆𝐶𝐹𝑀
520 P1 ZL

From weight flow (w, lb/min)

10.73 𝑤𝑇1 𝑍1
𝑄=
𝑀𝑊 P1 ZL

From molar flow (NM, moles/min)

379.5 ∗ 14.7 𝑁𝑀 𝑇1 𝑍1
𝑄=
520 P1 ZL
Where
SCFM = cubic feet per minute measured at 14.7 psia and 60°F
Z1 = compressibility factor at condition
ZL = compressibility factor at standard condition
To predict the properties of real gases more accurately, the perfect gas
law is often modified by the addition of an empirical value ‘‘Z’’, called the
compressibility factor of gasses.
𝑃𝑣 = 𝑍𝑅𝑇
Where Z can be calculated from
𝑍 3 − 𝑍 2 + 𝐴 − 𝐵 − 𝐵2 𝑍 − 𝐴𝐵 = 0
Where
𝑃𝑅
𝐴 = 0.42748 2.5
𝑇𝑅
𝑃𝑅
𝐵 = 0.08664
𝑇𝑅
Where
𝑃
𝑃𝑅 =
𝑃𝐶
𝑇
𝑇𝑅 =
𝑇𝐶
TR = Reduced Temperature
PR = Reduced Pressure
TC = Critical Temperature
PC = Critical Pressure
T = Observed Temperature
P = Observed Pressure
CALCULATION
The piston displacement (PD) is equal to the net piston area
multiplied by the length of piston sweep in a given period of time.
This displacement may be expressed:
For a single-acting piston compressing on the outer end only
stroke N D2 π
PD =
4 1728

PD = 4.55x10−4 (N)(D2 )(stroke)

For a single-acting piston compressing on the crank end only

stroke N D2 − d2 π
PD =
4 1728

PD = 4.55x10−4 (N)(D2 − d2 )(stroke)

For a double-acting piston (other than tail rod type)

stroke N 2 D2 − d2 π
PD =
4 1728

PD = 4.55x10−4 (N)(2 D2 − d2 )(stroke)

CALCULATION
Volumetric Efficiency (VE) is ratio of free air delivered to the
displacement of the compressor. The effect of the gas contained in the
clearance volume on the pumping capacity of a cylinder can be
represented by:
ZS 1
𝑉𝐸 = 100 − 𝑟 − 𝐶 𝑟 𝑘 −1
𝑍𝐷

One method for accounting for suction and discharge valve losses is
to reduce the volumetric efficiency by an arbitrary amount, typically
4%, thus modifying :
ZS 1
𝑉𝐸 = 96 − 𝑟 − 𝐶 𝑟 𝑘−1
𝑍𝐷
Where
r = compression ratio, P2/P1
ZS = compressibility factor of suction fluid
ZD = compressibility factor of discharge fluid
C = clearance volume
CALCULATION
Table 4. Table of r1/k
 CALCULATION
Clearance Volume (C) is volume that
remains inside the cylinder after the
6 3 2 piston reaches the end of its inward
P2
stroke.

Thus, Effective Stroke Volume = V1 – V4

PV n  C
Actual Work
5 4 1 Wact = Area 1-2-3-4
P1
Wact = Area (5-1-2-6) – Area (5-4-3-6)
V3 V4 V1

Effective Swept Volume, V1-V4

Clearance Volume, Clearance volume is usually expressed as
V3=Vc Swept Volume, V1-V3=Vs a percent of piston displacement and
Total Volume, V1 referred to as percent clearance, or
cylinder clearance, C.
𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑐𝑢 𝑖𝑛
𝐶= 100
𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑐𝑢 𝑖𝑛
CALCULATION
Clearance Volume : Consists of two spaces.
 Space between cylinder end & the piston to allow for wear.
 Space for reception of valves

High – class H.P. compressors :

 Clearance Vol. = 3 % of Swept Vol.
 Lead (Pb) fuse wire used to measure the gap between cylinder end
and piston.

Low – grade L.P. compressors :

 Clearance Vol. = 6 % of Swept Vol.
 Flattened ball of putty used to measure the gap between cylinder
end and piston.

Effect of Clearance Volume

If volume taken in per stroke < swept volume,
 Increase size of compressor
 Increase power to drive compressor
CALCULATION
Equivalent capacity for a compressor, in cubic feet per day @ 14.4
psia and suction temperature, may be calculated by :
𝑃𝐷𝑥𝑉𝐸𝑥𝑃𝑆 𝑥10−6
𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑓𝑑 =
𝑍𝑆

𝑃𝐷𝑥𝑉𝐸𝑥𝑃𝑆 𝑥10−6 14.4 TL ZL

𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑓𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑃𝐿 , 𝑇𝐿 =
𝑍𝑆 PL TS ZS

Discharge Temperature, ºR or ºK
𝑘−1
𝑇𝐷 = 𝑇𝑆 𝑟 𝑘
CALCULATION
Rod Loading
CALCULATION
Brake Horse Power (BHP)
Some compressor designs do not merit a higher horsepower allowance
and the manufacturers should be consulted for specific applications
𝐵𝐻𝑃 = 22 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑓𝑑 𝐹
F = 1.00 for single stage
1.08 for double stage
1.10 for triple stage
k−1
𝑇𝑠 k PL PD k
𝐵𝐻𝑃 = 3.03𝑥𝑍𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑄. −1
𝐸 k−1 TL PS
where
Q = gas flow rate, MMSCFD
Ts = suction temperature, °R
Zavg = (Zs+Zd)/2
Zs = suction compressibility factor
Zd = discharge compressibility factor
E = overall efficiency
High speed reciprocating units — 0.82
Low speed reciprocating units — 0.85
K = ratio of specific heats, Cp/Cv
Ps = suction pressure, psia
Pd = discharge pressure, psia
PL = standard pressure, psia
TL = standard temperature, °R
CALCULATION
Procedure
PD
1. Calculate overall compression ratio rt =
PS
2. Calculate the compression ratio per stage.
1
PD
s
r= , where s is number of stage
PS
The number of stages, s, should be increased until the ratio per
stage, r, is < ~ 4. This should generally result in stage discharge
temperatures of < 300°F depending on the inter stage cooler outlet
temperature assumed.
3. Multiplying r by the absolute suction pressure of the stage being
considered will give you discharge pressure of the stage.
4. Calculate the horsepower required for the stage
5. Subtract the assumed inter stage pressure loss from the discharge
pressure of the preceding stage to obtain the suction pressure for
the next stage.
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 until all stages have been calculated.
7. Sum the stage horse powers to obtain the total compressor power
required.
CALCULATION
Compress 2 MMscfd of gas measured at 14.65 psia and 60°F. Intake
pressure is 100 psia, and intake temperature is 100°F. Discharge
pressure is 900 psia. The gas has a specific gravity of 0.80 (23 MW).
What is the required horsepower, assuming a high speed
compressor?

 Compression ratio is

900 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
=9
100 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
This would be a two-stage compressor; therefore, the ratio per stage is
√9 or 3.

 100 psia x 3 = 300 psia (1st stage discharge pressure)

300 psia = 295 psia (suction to 2nd stage)
Where the 5 psi represents the pressure drop between first stage
discharge and second stage suction.
900 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
= 3.05 (compression ratio for 2nd stage )
295 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
It may be desirable to recalculate the inter stage pressure to balance
the ratios. For this sample problem, however, the first ratios
determined will be used.
CALCULATION
 With specific gravity of 0.8 at 150°F would have an approximate k of
1.21.

 For a compression ratio of 3, discharge temperature = approximately

220°F. Average cylinder temperature = 160°F.

 In the same manner, discharge temperature for the second stage

(with r = 3.05 and assuming inter stage cooling to 120°F) equals
approximately 244°F. Average cylinder temperature = 182°F.

 The compressibility factors at suction and discharge pressure and

temperature of each stage.
1st stage:
Zs = 0.98
Zd = 0.97
Zavg = 0.975

2nd stage:
Zs = 0.94
Zd = 0.92
Zavg = 0.93
CALCULATION
 Calculate the horsepower required for the first and second stages

First Stage
1.21−1
560 1.21 14.65 300 1.21
𝐵𝐻𝑃 = 3.03𝑥0.975 2. − 1 = 137.6
0.82 1.21 − 1 520 100

Second Stage
1.21−1
580 1.21 14.65 900 1.21
𝐵𝐻𝑃 = 3.03𝑥0.93 2. − 1 = 138.2
0.82 1.21 − 1 520 295

Total BHP required = 137.6 + 138.2 = 275.8

 Compressor  Power supply failure.
 Switchgear or starting panel.
Will not Start  Low oil pressure shut down switch.
 Control panel..

Motor Will Not  Low voltage.

 Excessive starting torque.
Synchronize  Incorrect power factor.
 Excitation voltage failure.

Packing Over  Lubrication failure.

 Improper lube oil and/or insufficient lube
Heating rate.
 Insufficient cooling.

Relief Valve  Faulty relief valve.

 Leaking suction valves or rings on next
Popping higher stage.
 Obstruction (foreign material, rags), blind or
valve closed in discharge line.

Crankshaft Oil  Faulty seal installation.

 Clogged drain hole.
Seal Leaks
Piston Rod Oil  Worn scraper rings.
 Scrapers incorrectly assembled.
Scraper Leaks  Worn/scored rod.
 Improper fit of rings to rod/side clearance.

Excessive  Excessive lube oil.

 Improper lube oil (too light, high carbon
Carbon On residue).
Valves  Oil carryover from inlet system or previous
stage.
 Broken or leaking valves causing high
temperature.
 Excessive temperature due to high pressure
ratio across cylinders.
High  Excessive ratio on cylinder due to leaking
inlet valves or rings on next higher stage.
Discharge  Fouled intercooler/piping.
Temperature  Leaking discharge valves or piston rings.
 High inlet temperature.
 Fouled water jackets on cylinder.
 Improper lube oil and/or lube rate.
Frame Knocks  Loose crosshead pin, pin caps or crosshead
shoes.
 Loose/worn main, crankpin or crosshead
bearings.
 Low oil pressure.
 Cold oil.
 Incorrect oil.
 Knock is actually from cylinder end.

Noise In  Loose piston.

 Piston hitting outer head or frame end of
Cylinder cylinder.
 Loose crosshead lock nut.
 Broken or leaking valve(s).
 Worn or broken piston rings or expanders.
 Valve improperly seated/damaged seat
gasket.
 Free air unloader plunger chattering.
  Worn packing rings.
Excessive  Improper lube oil and/or insufficient lube rate
Packing (blue rings).
 Dirt in packing.
Leakage  Excessive rate of pressure increase.
 Packing rings assembled incorrectly.
 Improper ring side or end gap clearance.
 Plugged packing vent system.
 Scored piston rod.
 Excessive piston rod run-out..

Low Oil  Oil pump failure.

 Oil foaming from counterweights striking oil
Pressure surface.
 Cold oil.
 Dirty oil filter.
 Interior frame oil leaks.
 Excessive leakage at bearing shim tabs
and/or bearings.
 Improper low oil pressure switch setting.
 Low gear oil pump by-pass/relief valve
setting.
 Defective pressure gauge.
 Plugged oil sump strainer.
 Defective oil relief valve.
Any question?