Introduction To Visual Inspection

Visual Inspection
Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

INTERNATIONAL TRAINING
Outline
 Introduction
 Basic principles
 Manual Vision Inspection
– Human Vision
– Common Inspection applications
– Equipment
 Automated or Machine Vision Inspection
– Machine Vision
– Common Inspection Applications
– Equipment
 Advantages and Limitations
 Glossary of terms
Introduction
 Visual inspection is commonly defined as “the examination
of a material, component, or product for conditions of
nonconformance using light and the eyes, alone or in
conjunction with various aids.
 Visual inspection often also involves, shaking, listening,
feeling, and sometimes even smelling the component being
inspected.
 Visual inspection consists of at least two major processes.
– The first is a search process.
– The second is a process of combining relevant knowledge,
sensory input, and pertinent logical processes to provide an
identification that some anomaly or pattern represents a flaw
that poses a risk to the performance of the part.
 Visual inspection is commonly employed to support other
NDT methods.
 Digital detectors and computer technology have made it
possible to automate some visual inspections. This is known
as “machine vision inspection.”
Introduction
 Visual inspection is the most basic and most
commonly employed NDT method.
 It is applicable to a wide variety of material types
and product forms.
 Several characteristics about the part being
examined may be determined, which include
dimensional conformance, the presence of
discontinuities, general fit and wear, and simple
cosmetic compliance.
 It can be performed by direct or indirect methods
during various stages of manufacturing or after the
component has been placed in-service.

Introduction
 The quality of an inspection are affected primarily
by four factors.
– The quality of the detector (eye or camera).
– The lighting conditions.
– The capability to process the visual data.
– The level of training and attention to detail.

Introduction –
Manual Versus Automated
Inspection
 The majority of visual
inspections are completed
by an inspector, but
machine vision is becoming
more common.
 The primary advantage of an
inspector is their ability to quickly adapt to a variety
of lighting and other non-typical conditions, and
their ability to use other senses.
 The primary advantage of a machine vision
inspection system is their ability to make very
consistent and rapid inspections of specific details of
a component.
 Machine vision is primarily used in production
applications where a large
Q&Q INSPECTION ANDnumber
ASCENT of components
require inspectionINTERNATIONAL
and theTRAININGinspection conditions can
Basic Principles –
The Human Eye
 Light enters the eye
through the pupil and an
image is projected on the
retina.
 Muscles move the eyeball in
the orbits and allow you to
focus the image on the
central retina or fovea.

The Human Eye
The retina is a mosaic of two basic types of photoreceptors, rods and cones.
 Rods are sensitive to blue-green light and are used for vision under
dark or dim conditions.
 Cones operate only in relatively bright light, but they provide us
with our sharpest images and enable us to see colors. There are
three types of cones
– L-cones are red absorbing cones or those that absorb best at the
relatively long wavelengths peaking at 565 nm
– M-cones are green absorbing cones with a peak absorption at 535 nm
– S-cones are blue absorbing cones with a peak absorption at 440 nm.
Basic Principles – Visual Acuity
 Cones provide us with our sharpest
images because most of the 3 million
cones in each retina are confined to a
small region just opposite the lens
called the fovea. The maximum
concentration is about 180,000 cones
per square mm.
 Our sharpest and most colorful images
are produced in the fovea.
 Outside of this region our vision is
relatively poor but, since we can
quickly redirect our eyes we tend not
to be aware of our poor peripheral
vision.

Basic Principles – Visual Acuity
There is a b
n c
X/2 q
’ 180,000
limit to what X /
2
q q
’ Cones
1 mm
b’
the unaided 1 mm
eye can see. ~425 by 425 cones

d d’
Normal visual acuity or 20/20 vision is defined as the ability to resolve

a spatial pattern separated by a visual angle of one minute or 1/60 of a
degree of arc.
One degree of a scene is projected on about 290 micrometers of the
retina.
In 290 micrometers there are 123 cones and in 1/60 of a degree there
2 cones which is the number required to resolve an object.
The size of an object that can be seen at a given distance can be
calculated using the following formula: X = (d tan q/2)2
When visually inspecting an object for a defect, a comfortable viewing distance “d” might
be around 12 inches. At 12 inches, the normal visual acuity of the human eye is 0.0035
inch. (It must be noted that this value is for the situation where there is good lighting and high contrast
between the objects being viewed.)
Contrast Sensitivity
• Contrast sensitivity is a measure of how faded or
washed out an object can be before it becomes
indistinguishable from a uniform field
• It has been experimentally determined that the
minimum discernible difference in gray scale level
that the eye can detect is about 2% of full brightness
• Contrast sensitivity varies with
– the size or spatial frequency
of a feature
– The lighting conditions
– Whether the object is lighter
or darker than the background
The graph to the right plots the

visibility of a spot as a function of the
above variables
Contrast Sensitivity
It should be noted, however, that
larger objects are not always
easier to see than smaller objects
as contrast is reduced.
In this image:
– The luminance of pixels is varied
sinusoidally in the horizontal
direction. The spatial frequency
increases exponentially from
left to right.
– The contrast also varies
logarithmically from 100% at the
bottom to about 0.5% at the top. Campbell, F. W. and Robson, J. G. (1968) Application of Fourier analysis to
– The luminance of peaks and the visibility of gratings. Journal of Physiology (London) Image Courtesy
of Izumi Ohzawa, Ph.D. University of California School of Optometry
troughs remains constant along
a given horizontal path through the image.
If object visibility was dictated solely by image contrast, the alternating

bright and dark bars should appear to have equal height everywhere in the
image. However, the bars seem to be taller
Q&Q INSPECTION in the middle of the image.
AND ASCENT
Basic Principles – Light Levels
• Under normal lighting conditions the
cones are operating and the eye has
good visual acuity and is most
sensitive to greenish yellow color,
which has a wavelength around 555
nanometers (photopic curve).
• When the light levels drop to near total
darkness, the response of the eye
changes significantly as shown by the
scotopic response curve on the left.
• At this level of light, the rods are most
active and the human eye is more
sensitive to any amount of light that is
present, but is less sensitive to the
range of color.
• At this very low light level, sensitivity
to blue, violet, and ultraviolet is
increased, but sensitivity to yellow and
red is reduced.
Light Intensity Measurement
 Effective visual inspection requires adequate
lighting.
 The type of inspection will dictate the lighting
requirements. Inspection of components with
fine detail and low contrast will require
greater illumination than components with
large details and high contrast.
 Light intensity may be measured with a
suitable light meter. The unit of measure for
white light is foot-candles (fc).
– A foot-candle is equal to the amount of direct
light thrown by one standard candle at a
distance of 1 foot.
 Inspection of components with fine detail and
low contrast may require 100 foot-candles or
more.
 Specification requirements for lighting should
be reviewed prior to performing an inspection.
Light Directionality
• The directionality of the
light is a very important
consideration.
• For some applications,
flat, even lighting
works well.
• For other applications,
directional lighting is
better because it
produces shadows that
are larger than the
actual flaw and easier
to detect.

Basic Principles – Perspective
The eye/brain need visual clues
to determine perspective.
Is the book facing towards

or away from you?

Optical Illusions
Sometime the eye/mind has trouble correctly processing
visual information.
Are the horizontal lines parallel or How many black dots do you see?
do they slope?
Basic Principles – Vision
 When evaluations are made by
an inspector, eye examinations
must be done at regular intervals
to assure accuracy and
sensitivity. These examinations
may consist
of the following:
 Near Vision (Jaeger)
 Far Vision (Snellen)
 Color Differentiation
 When using machine vision,
different but similar performance
checks must beQ&QINTERNATIONAL
performed.
INSPECTION AND ASCENT
TRAINING
Basic Principles
 For best results the inspector or
machine vision operator must have:
– A basic knowledge of material processing,
forming, machining and joining
processes.
– A general understanding of design
features, application and service
requirements.
– Specific instructions on what to look for
and specific accept/reject criteria.

Inspection Applications
Applications for visual inspection and many and range
from looking a product over for obvious defect to
performing detailed inspections. Some of the common
applications include:
 Detection of surface anomalies such as scratches,
excess surface roughness, and areas void of paint
or plating.
 Crack, porosity, corrosion or other flaw detection.
 Dimensional conformance.
 Precision measurements.
 Foreign object detection.
 Component location.

Inspection Applications –
Flaw Detection
 Visual inspection of
manufactured
materials and
components is a cost
effective means of
identifying flaws.
 Visual inspection of a
casting reveals a crack
between a threaded
opening and a pressed
fit.
 The aluminum sand
casting has hot tears
and shrinkage at the
transition zones.
Flaw Detection
In-service inspections of
existing components and
structures is commonly
accomplished visually.
 In this example, visual
inspection of a fire
escape reveals a failure
in a handrail tube.
 The failure is in the tube
seam and is likely the
result of ice expansion.

Flaw Detection
Normal inspection
practices for highway
bridges rely almost entirely
on visual inspection to
evaluate the condition of
the bridges.

Flaw Detection
Over 80 percent of all aircraft
inspections are performed
visually.

Flaw Detection
 Weld quality requirements
are commonly determined
through visual inspection.
 Many standards have
established acceptance
criteria for welds.
Transverse weld crack
Slag rolled into toe of weld

Dimensional Conformance
 Visualinspection is commonly employed for
general dimensional conformance,
assembly fit, and alignment between
components.
 Common applications include determining:
– Weld size and tolerance.
– Component dimensions.
– Material alignment and allowable distortion.

Welds are commonly inspected for dimensional tolerance.
 There are several types of gages used to inspect welding fit
up and finished weldments.
 These gages are intended for general inspection where close
tolerances are not required.
 The gage used is determined by the application.
Palmgren gage
Fillet gage set
VWAC gage
Cambridge gage

Visual inspection is commonly used to determine weld size and
tolerances according to standards and engineering
specifications.
Throat measurement Leg size determination Convexity measurement

using a Palmgren gage. with fillet gage. with VWAC gage.

Undercut in a weld is readily seen visually. In many cases
its depth must be measured to determine if it exceeds code
requirements.
Measurement of undercut
depth with VWAC gage.
Component finish dimensions are checked with the
use of measurement devices, such as transferring
gages and precision measurement gages.
The finished depth of a Small hole gage used in

machined mold is determined determining hole diameter.
with a depth micrometer.
Alignment/Distortion
 Visual inspection frequently involves
checking materials and components for
fit and alignment.
 Many standards establish allowable
tolerances for fit and distortion.
 Structural fabrication requires
dimensional inspection of finished
components prior to shipment to the
field site.
 Basic tools are used for the inspection.
An inspector will set up string lines at In this image a
known distances and plum them using a fabricated girder is
tape measure. Measurements are then
being inspected for
taken at various locations and compared
to code requirements. distortion, sweep
and web flatness.
Equipment
 Visual inspection equipment includes a variety of
different tools. These may range from basic
rulers, tape measures and spring type calipers to
rigid or flexible borescopes and remote crawlers
with cameras.
 Many tools have been designed for specific
applications such as the various weld gauges.
 Some of the specialized tools such as crawlers
have been designed to satisfy the inspection needs
in applications where conventional techniques are
not feasible.

Equipment – Basic Measurements
 One of the most common tools
used in visual inspection is the
rule or scale.
 Used to measure linear
dimensions, when properly
used will measure within
0.015” or 1/64” and smaller.
 Rules are made in a variety
lengths, widths, and
thicknesses.
 They are graduated in common
fractions, decimal units, and
metric units, or combinations
of both.
 The specific type of rule is
typically chosen relative to the
application.
Equipment –
Precision Measurements
 Sliding calipers are a
precision refinement of the
common rule, which results
in greater accuracy of
measurements.
 They may incorporate
either a dial indicator or
digital readout.
 Sliding-type calipers are
commonly used to check
dimensional tolerances of
machined components,
wear on components, and
fit between components.

Equipment –
 Micrometers are precise
measurement instruments
used to make accurate
direct readings in contact
measurements.
 Micrometers are designed
for inside, outside, and
depth measurements, and
are available in a wide
variety of shapes and sizes.
 Micrometers may be either
thousandth inch (.001”) or
ten thousandth inch
(.0001”) measurement
capable.

Equipment –
 Micrometers operate on
the principle that a
precision made screw with
a pitch of forty threads per
inch will advance one
fortieth of an inch (.025”)
with each complete turn.
 On a one inch micrometer,
the sleeve is marked
longitudinally with forty
lines to the inch which
corresponds to the number
of threads on the spindle.

Equipment –
 The reading line on the
sleeve is divided into forty
equal parts by vertical
lines, each designates
1/40th” or .025” and every
fourth line denotes
hundreds of thousandths
and is numbered 1 – 0.
 The beveled edge of the
thimble is divided into
twenty five equal parts
with each representing
.001”, with every line
numbered from 0 -24.

Equipment –
Example:
– One major division on the
sleeve is visible, representing
one tenth of an inch.
– Two minor divisions are
visible, which each represent
an additional 25 thousandths.
– Line 15 on the thimble
coincides with the reading line
on the sleeve indicating that 0.100”
fifteen one thousandths of an
inch should be added to the (2 X 0.025) 0.050”
measurement. (15 X .001) 0.015”
– By adding all three values, the 0.165”
micrometer reading is
obtained.

Equipment –
Reading the ten thousandths micrometer.
 The ten thousandths micrometer incorporates a vernier scale.
 The vernier consists of ten divisions the sleeve, which occupies
the same space as nine divisions on the beveled edge of the
thimble.
 The difference between one of the ten spaces on the sleeve and
one of the nine spaces on the thimble is 1/10th of a division or
Example:
0.0001”.
− The second major divisions (line 2) on the
sleeve is visible (2 x 0.100” = 0.200”)
− Three minor divisions after line 2 are visible
(3 X 0.025” = 0.075”)
− The beveled edge of the thimble is between
0 and 1 (0 x 0.001 = 0)
0.200”
− The vernier scale has the sixth line on the
sleeve perfectly lined up with one of the 0.075”
marks on the thimble ( 6 x 0.0001 = 0.0006”) 0.000”
0.0006”
− The micrometer readingQ&Q is: 0.2756”
INSPECTION AND ASCENT
INTERNATIONAL TRAINING 0.2756”
Equipment – Transferring Gauges
 Transfer instruments are
used to take
measurements which are
transferred to direct
measurement devices.
 They consist of calipers,
dividers, telescoping gages
and small hole gages.

Equipment – Transferring
Gauges
 Spring type calipers are available
for contact measurements of
inside and outside dimensions.
 They are useful for measuring
distances between and over
surfaces.
 They are commonly used to
transfer dimensions or sizes
between the work piece and
standard measuring devices, such
as graduated rules.
 The size of a linear or rounded
indication of a discontinuity may
be measured with dividers.

Gauges
 Small hole gages are a type of transfer instrument used to
measure small holes or slots.
 They are generally supplied in sets with a range of 1/8” -
1/2”.
 The actual measurement is determined by transferring a
properly adjusted gage to a micrometer.

Gauges
 Telescoping gages make
inside measurements such
as hole diameter and slot
width.
 They are designed to be
measured by a micrometer
after being set to the hole
or slot size.
 To make accurate
measurements it is
important to make sure the
telescoping gage is aligned
properly in the measuring
faces of the micrometer.

Equipment – Screw Pitch Gage
 The screw pitch gage is a
basic visual aid for checking
the number of threads per
inch and rough inaccuracies
of threads.
 The gage consists of a steel
case with a number of
folding leaves at each end.
 Each leaf is number and
contains teeth
corresponding to a specific
thread pitch.

Direct and Remote
Visual Inspection
 Many codes refer to direct visual examination as a
visual inspection which requires that access to the
area is sufficient to place the eye within 24 inches
of the surface to be examined and at an angle of
not less than 30º to that surface.
 If these requirements cannot be met, then remote
visual inspection may be used.
 Remote visual inspection may be accomplished
with the use of a number of optical aids such as,
mirrors, magnifiers, and rigid or flexible
borescopes.

Optical Aids
 Mirrors are valuable aids in
visual inspection, they allow the
inspection of threaded and
bored holes, inside surfaces of
pipes and fittings, as well as
many others.
 Magnifiers assist the visual
inspector by enlarging the size
of the object being examined.
 Comparators are a magnifier
with a measuring capability.
The comparator has
interchangeable reticles which
provide measurements for
threads, angles, linear
measurement, diameters
INTERNATIONALand
TRAINING
Optical Aids
 Borescopes are visual aids used for the inspection of
internal surface areas.
 They are designed for remote viewing in difficult to reach
areas such as jet engines, cylinders, tanks, and various
enclosed chambers.
 Borescopes are available in many different diameters and
lengths, and are classified as rigid or flexible.

Visual Inspection With A Borescope
Clean Surface Corrosion Damage

Optical Aids
 Advances in technology has allowed video
equipment to be adapted to portable and robotic
devices.
 Portable video probes allow inspectors to remotely
perform examinations in closed chambers which
are inaccessible by convention inspection means.
 Robotics have been developed whereby cameras
can be affixed to crawlers and submersibles.
– Retrieval tools can be affixed to robotics to remove
foreign objects.
 Conventional recording techniques may
be employed for image capture and
storage with many of the remote video
inspection methods.

Machine Vision Inspection

Machine Vision – Basic Principles
 Machine vision technology uses an imaging system
and a computer to analyze an image and to make
decisions based on that analysis.
 In inspection applications, the machine vision optics
and imaging system enable the processor to "see"
objects precisely and thus make decisions about
which component meet a specific inspection
criteria.
 Machine vision can eliminate human factor error
that might result from doing difficult, tedious, or
boring tasks. It also allows process equipment to
be utilized 24 hours a day.

Machine Vision – Basic Principles
The following process steps are common to all
machine vision applications:
 Image acquisition: An optical system gathers an image, which is
then converted to a digital format and stored into computer
memory.
 Image processing: A computer processor uses various algorithms
to enhance elements of the image that are of specific importance to
the process.
 Feature extraction: The processor identifies and quantifies critical
features in the image (e.g., the position of holes on a printed circuit
board, the number of pins in a connector, the orientation of a
component on a conveyor) and sends the data to a control program.
 Decision and control: The processor's control program makes
decisions based upon the data. Are the holes within specification?
Is a pin missing? Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT
Machine Vision - Applications
As mentioned previously, machine vision is primarily used in
production applications where a large number of components
require inspection and the inspection conditions can be closely
controlled. Uses include:
• Assembly verification (caps, fasteners,
electronic board components, etc.)
• Surface inspection (dents, scratches,
porosity.
and other undesirable features)
• Verification of colors, gradients, patterns
in fabrics and labels.
• Confirmation of proper labeling for Assembly Verification
medications, foods and other products.
• Inspection of coating coverage.
• Feature measurements.
INTERNATIONAL TRAINING Spark Gap Measurement
Machine Vision - Equipment
Key System Elements
 A variety of components are
included in a machine vision
system, which depend on the
environment, the application,
and the budget. However, the
following components are
common to all vision systems :
– Front-end optics: this includes the lighting, the lens, and the
camera.
– Frame grabber: this is a computer processor board that
accepts the video input from the camera, digitizes it, and stores
it for analysis.
– Processor: A computer processor is required to control the
vision application.
– Control Software: Computer software is used for controlling
and executing vision tasks.
Advantages of Visual Inspection
 Readily used on almost all materials.
 Simple to perform.
 Low in cost, (application dependent).
 Relatively quick.
 Results may be permanently recorded.
 Can be automated.

Limitations of Visual Inspection
 Direct inspections are limited to surfaces only.
 Indirect inspections require greater inspector
knowledge and training.
 Inspector dependent, knowledge of materials and
processing, eye sight.
 Standards (workmanship) may be difficult to
obtain.

Glossary of Terms
 Borescope: A visual inspection aid used for the inspection of

internal surfaces. Borescopes are rigid and flexible.
 Corrosion: The deterioration of a metal by chemical or electro-

chemical reaction with its environment.
 Defect: A discontinuity which interferes with the usefulness of a

part. A fault in any material or part which is detrimental to its
serviceability.

Glossary of Terms, Cont.
 Direct Visual Inspection: Visual inspection conducted where the eye

can be place within 24” of the area to be inspected at an angle of
not less than 30˚.
 Discontinuity: An interruption in the normal physical structure or

configuration of a part.
 Foot Candle: The amount of direct light thrown by one standard

candle on a surface one foot away.

 Inherent Discontinuity: Discontinuities which are ordinarily normal

to the material at the time it originally solidifies from the molten
state. They consist of porosity, inclusions, and pipe.
 Magnifier: An optical glass which enlarges the real size of an object

being inspected
 Micrometer: A precise measuring instrument used to take accurate

readings in contact measurement.

 Pocket Comparator: A magnifier with measuring capability through

a system of interchangeable reticles.
 Power of Magnification: The amount that the real size of an object

is enlarged. The power if designated by “X”.
 Remote Visual Inspection: Inspection conducted where the eye

cannot be placed within 24” of the area to be inspected, or at an
angle less than 30˚.

 Reticle: A series of lines, dots, cross hairs, or wires in the focus of

the eyepiece of and optical instrument.
 Rule or Scale: A measuring device used to make linear

measurements.
 Screw Pitch Gages: A visual aid used to check the number of

threads per inch and rough inaccuracies in threads.

 Secondary Processing: Metal removal processes, heat treatment

and plating processes used to produce and article of the desired
shape and finish from the formed material.
 Service Discontinuity: Discontinuities induced in components after

they have been placed in service.
 Transfer Instruments: A group of instruments used to take

measurements which are transferred to precise direct measuring
devices. They consist of calipers, dividers, telescoping gages, and
small hole gages.

 Vernier Scale: A device for indicating a fraction of a whole division

of a scale reading
 Visual Scale: The ability to see. The keenness of perception.
 Wear: Wear is deterioration due to use. Wear will cause a

reduction in cross section and strength.
 Weld Inspection Gages: A group of measuring devices used to

inspect welding fit up and finished weldments.


Introduction To Visual Inspection

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Introduction To Visual Inspection

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Introduction To Visual Inspection

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Visual Inspection

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

eye can see. ~425 by 425 cones

Normal visual acuity or 20/20 vision is defined as the ability to resolve

The graph to the right plots the

If object visibility was dictated solely by image contrast, the alternating

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Is the book facing towards

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Transverse weld crack

Slag rolled into toe of weld

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Throat measurement Leg size determination Convexity measurement

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

The finished depth of a Small hole gage used in

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Clean Surface Corrosion Damage

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

 Borescope: A visual inspection aid used for the inspection of

 Corrosion: The deterioration of a metal by chemical or electro-

 Defect: A discontinuity which interferes with the usefulness of a

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

 Direct Visual Inspection: Visual inspection conducted where the eye

 Discontinuity: An interruption in the normal physical structure or

 Foot Candle: The amount of direct light thrown by one standard

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

 Inherent Discontinuity: Discontinuities which are ordinarily normal

 Magnifier: An optical glass which enlarges the real size of an object

 Micrometer: A precise measuring instrument used to take accurate

Q&Q INSPECTION AND ASCENT

 Pocket Comparator: A magnifier with measuring capability through