CAI-1 Inspection Principles-M1

Ch 21 Inspection
Principles and Practices

Sections:
1. Inspection Fundamentals
2. Sampling vs. 100% Inspection
3. Automated Inspection
4. When and Where to Inspect
5. Quantitative Analysis of Inspection
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
Inspection
The means by which poor quality is detected and good

quality is assured
 Traditionally accomplished using labor-intensive methods
 Sampling inspection is common
 Manual inspection is usually performed after parts are
already made
 If defective product is produced, it is too late to correct
during regular processing
 Defective parts that are already made must be
scrapped or reworked
New QC Approaches
to Address these Problems
 100% automated inspection rather than sampling
inspection using manual methods
 On-line sensor systems for inspection during or
immediately after processing
 Feedback control of sensor data to manufacturing
process
 Software tools for SPC
 Advanced inspection and sensor technologies (e.g.,
CMMs, machine vision)
Types of Inspection
1. Inspection for variables

 One or more quality characteristics of the part or
product are measured
 Requires appropriate measuring instrumentation
2. Inspection for attributes
 Part or product is inspected to decide whether it
conforms to the accepted quality standard
 Sometimes based on judgment of inspector
 Sometimes uses a gage
 Sometimes involves counting number of defects
Inspection Procedure
1. Presentation – item is presented for examination

2. Examination – consists of measuring or gaging a
quality characteristic, or searching for and counting
defects
3. Decision – to accept or reject the item?
4. Action – the item is accepted or rejected
 If rejected, can the item be reworked?
 Additional action may include adjustments in the
manufacturing process
Which Features to Inspect?
Key Characteristics
 In general, inspecting every feature is unnecessary
 Certain features are more important
 Key characteristics (KCs) include:
 Matching dimensions of assembled components
 Surface roughness on bearing surfaces
 Straightness and concentricity of high-speed rotating
shafts
 Finishes of exterior surfaces on consumer products
such as cars
Inspection Errors
 Errors can occur in the inspection procedure during the

examination and decision steps
1. Type I error – when a good item is classified as
defective
 A “false alarm”
2. Type II error – when a defective item is classified as
good
 A “miss”
Why Errors Occur
in Manual Inspection
 Complexity of the inspection task

 Inherent variations in the inspection procedure
 Judgment required by inspector
 Mental fatigue
 Inaccuracies in the measuring or gaging instruments
Why Errors Occur
in Automated Inspection
 Complexity of the inspection task

 Resolution of the inspection sensor, as affected by “gain”
or other sensitivity adjustments
 Equipment malfunctions
 “Bugs” in the computer program controlling the inspection
procedure
Inspection Accuracy
The capability of an inspection procedure to avoid type I

and type II errors
 Measures of inspection accuracy:
 p1 = probability that a conforming item is classified as
conforming
 p2 = probability that a nonconforming item is classified
as nonconforming
 Probability of inspection errors:
 Probability of type I error = (1 – p1)
 Probability of type II error = (1 – p2)
 Actual fraction defect rate = q
Inspection vs. Testing
 Inspection is used to assess the quality of a part or

product relative to design specifications
 Testing is used to assess the functional aspects of the
product
 Does the product operate the way it is supposed to?
 Will it operate in environments of extreme
temperature and humidity?
 In QC testing, the item is observed during actual
operation or under conditions that might be present
during operation
Sampling Inspection
1. Variables sampling – the mean value of the quality
characteristic of interest is compared to an allowed
value
 The batch is rejected if the mean value compares
unfavorably
2. Attributes sampling – if the number of defects in the
sample is greater than the acceptance number the
batch is rejected
 The allowed value or acceptance number is chosen
so that the probability of rejecting the batch is small
unless the quality level is indeed poor
Acceptance Sampling
In the construction of an acceptance sampling plan, the

supplier and customer must agree on the following
specifications:
 Acceptable quality level (AQL)
 A quality level that is less than perfect but deemed
acceptable to the customer = q0
 Lot tolerance percent defective (LTPD)
 A lower quality level that is deemed unacceptable = q1
Possible Statistical Errors in Sampling
1. Type I error – rejecting a batch of product that is equal to

or better than the AQL
 Actual q  q0
 Probability of a type I error () is called the
producer’s risk
2. Type II error – accepting a batch of product whose
quality is worse than the LTPD
 Actual q  q1
 Probability of a type II error () is called the
consumer’s risk
 Supplier and customer must also agree on these risks
Design of an
Acceptance Sampling Plan
 Based on the agreed upon values of AQL, LTPD,
producer’s risk (), and consumer’s risk (),
 The values of the sample size Qs and acceptance
number (or allowed value) Na can be determined
 Operating characteristic curve (OC curve) for a given
sampling plan = plot of the probability of accepting
the batch as a function of the fraction defect rate q in
the batch
 Average outgoing quality curve (AOQ curve) for a
given sampling plan = plot of the mean quality level
passing through the sampling plan
Operating Characteristic Curve
 Typical OC curve for a given

sampling plan shows the
probability of accepting the lot
for different fraction defect
rates of incoming batches
 AQL = acceptable quality level
(q0)
 LTPD = lot tolerance percent
defective (q1)
Average Outgoing Quality Curve
 AOQ curve for a given

sampling plan shows
the quality level of the
batch as it exits the
inspection plan
 AOQL = average
outgoing quality limit -
the maximum average
defect rate of the batch
and corresponding
incoming defect rate q
100% Manual Inspection
 In principle, the only way to achieve 100% acceptable

quality is to use 100% inspection
 Two problems with 100% inspection when performed
manually
1. Inspection cost per part is applied to every part in the
batch rather than a small portion of the batch (the
sample)
2. Errors (types I and II) that accompany human
inspection
OC Curve in 100% Inspection
 Theoretically, the probability of
accepting the batch in 100%
inspection is 1.0 if the quality level is
better than the AQL and zero if the
quality level is worse than the AQL
 Two problems with 100% inspection
when performed manually:
1. Expense of inspecting every part
2. Errors in inspection procedure
(type I and type II errors)
Automated Inspection
Automation of one or more steps in the inspection procedure

1. Automated presentation of parts to human inspector
 Human inspector performs examination and decision
steps
2. Automated examination and decision
 Manual loading (presentation) and unloading
3. Complete automation of entire cycle (presentation,
examination, and decision)
Errors Can Also Occur in
100% Automated Inspection
 Relationship between
sensitivity of an
automated inspection
system and the
probabilities of type I
and type II errors
 p1 = Pr(conforming item
is correctly classified)
 p2 = Pr(nonconforming
item is correctly
classified)
More on Automated Inspection
Full potential of automated inspection is best achieved

when
 It is integrated into the manufacturing process
 100% inspection is used
 Results of the procedure lead to positive action
 Feedback process control
 To allow compensating adjustments in the process
to reduce variability and improve quality
 Parts sortation
 Defects are separated from process output
Action Steps in Automated Inspection
Feedback process
control
Sortation into two

or more quality
levels
Off-Line and On-Line Inspection
 Off-line inspection – performed away from manufacturing

process, usually after a time delay
 On-line inspection – performed when the parts are made,
either as an integral step in processing, or immediately
afterward
 On-line/in-process inspection – performed during the
manufacturing process
 On-line/post-process inspection – performed right after
the process
Off-Line Inspection
 Performed away from the manufacturing process

 Usually a time delay between processing and inspection
On-Line/In-Process Inspection
 The inspection procedure is performed during the

manufacturing operation
 Allows for corrective action on current work unit
On-Line/Post-Process Inspection
 Measurement or gaging procedure is accomplished

immediately following the production process
 On-line because it is integrated with the manufacturing
workstation, and the results can immediately influence the
production process for the next work part
Product Inspection vs.
Process Monitoring
 On-line/in-process inspection is more feasible for process
variables than for product variables
 Process monitoring for product quality relies on
assumption of deterministic manufacturing:
 Process is in statistical control
 Process capability is good
 Cause-and-effect relationships between process
variables and product quality are known, and
mathematical models for these relationships have
been derived
Distributed Inspection vs.
Final Inspection
 Distributed inspection – when inspection stations are
located along the line of work flow
 Most extreme – inspection and sortation are
located after every processing step
 More cost effective – inspections are strategically
placed at critical points in the manufacturing
sequence
 Final inspection – one comprehensive inspection
immediately before shipment to customer
 Quality conscious manufacturers combine the two
approaches
Quantitative Analysis of Inspection
1. Effect of defect rate in serial production

2. Final inspection vs. distributed inspection
3. Inspection vs. no inspection
What the Equations Tell Us
 Distributed inspection/sortation reduces the number of

parts processed in a sequence of production operations
compared to one final inspection
 As the ratio of unit processing cost to unit inspection cost
increases, the advantage of distributed inspection over
one final inspection increases
 Partially distributed inspection is less effective than fully
distributed inspection in reducing waste
 The “law of diminishing returns” operates in distributed
inspection systems – each additional inspection station
yields less savings
What the Equations Tell Us
 Inspections should be performed immediately following

processes with a high fraction defect rate
 Inspection should be performed prior to high cost
processes
 Either no inspection or 100% inspection is more
appropriate than sampling inspection
 Whichever is better depends on the relative values of
inspection/sortation cost vs. damage cost (of defects
that pass around the inspection plan)

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Ch 21 Inspection

Principles and Practices

The means by which poor quality is detected and good

1. Inspection for variables

1. Presentation – item is presented for examination

 Errors can occur in the inspection procedure during the

 Complexity of the inspection task

 Complexity of the inspection task

The capability of an inspection procedure to avoid type I

 Inspection is used to assess the quality of a part or

In the construction of an acceptance sampling plan, the

1. Type I error – rejecting a batch of product that is equal to

 Typical OC curve for a given

 AOQ curve for a given

 In principle, the only way to achieve 100% acceptable

Automation of one or more steps in the inspection procedure

Full potential of automated inspection is best achieved

Sortation into two

 Off-line inspection – performed away from manufacturing

 Performed away from the manufacturing process

 The inspection procedure is performed during the

 Measurement or gaging procedure is accomplished

1. Effect of defect rate in serial production

 Distributed inspection/sortation reduces the number of

 Inspections should be performed immediately following

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