LECTURE NOTES 03/07

STKM3212: FOOD PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY

MASS AND HEAT TRANSFER IN
STEADY STATE
(Perpindahan Jisim dan Tenaga Haba dalam
Keadaan Mantap)
SAIFUL IRWAN ZUBAIRI PMIFT, Grad B.E.M.
B. Eng. (Chemical-Bioprocess) (Hons.), UTM
M. Eng. (Bioprocess), UTM

ROOM NO.: 2166, CHEMISTRY BUILDING,

TEL. (OFF.): 03-89215828,
FOOD SCIENCE PROGRAMME,
CENTRE OF CHEMICAL SCIENCES AND FOOD TECHNOLOGY,
UKM BANGI, SELANGOR
1.1 OUTLINES
1.2 MASS TRANSFER EXAMPLES AND FICK’S LAW.
1.3 EXAMPLES OF THE MASS TRANSFER IN THE FOOD
PROCESSING INDUSTRY (MEMBRANE SEPARATION
PROCESSES):
(a) Liquid Permeation Membrane
(Membran Peresapan Cecair)
(b) Reverse Osmosis (Keterbalikkan Osmosis)

1.4 BASIC MECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER.

1.5 CONDUCTION THROUGH HOLLOW CYLINDER.
1.6 CONDUCTION THROUGH MULTILAYER CYLINDER.
1.7 COMBINED CONVECTION AND CONDUCTION HEAT
TRANSFER.
1.2 MASS TRANSFER EXAMPLES
AND FICK’S LAW
 Mass transfer occurs when a component in a mixture
MIGRATES in the same phase or from phase to phase
because of a difference in concentration between 2 points
 EXAMPLES IN NATURE:
1. Liquid in an open pail of water – evaporates – air – REASON: Difference in
concentration of water vapor at water surface & surrounding air.
2. A piece of sugar added to a cup of coffee – dissolves – by itself – diffuses to the
surrounding solution.
 This mass transfer can be interpreted using: FICK’S LAW
 FICK’S LAW: “A random path molecule A might take diffusing
through B molecules from point (1) to (2)  IF there are a
greater number of A molecules near point (1) than at (2), and
since molecules diffuse randomly in both directions, MORE A
molecules will diffuse from (1) to (2) than (2) to (1)  So, the
net diffusion of A is HIGH-TO-LOW CONCENTRATION
regions.
CONTINUE:

Schematic diagram of molecules diffusion process

CONTINUES:
The general Fick’s Law equation:

 J*Az = Molar flux of component A in the z direction due to

molecular diffusion in (kg mol A/s.m2)
 DAB = The molecular diffusivity of the molecules A in B in (m2/s)
 CA = The concentration of A in (kg mol/m3)
 z = The distance of diffusion in (m)
AT STEADY STATE: J*Az & DAB = constant ------------ SO,
After rearranging and integrating the equation above:


1.3 EXAMPLES OF THE MASS TRANSFER IN THE FOOD
PROCESSING INDUSTRY (MEMBRANE SEPARATION
PROCESSES):

 Separations by use of membranes are becoming important in the

food process industries.
 The membrane acts - semipermeable/semiporous barrier -
separation occurs by the membrane controlling the rate of
movement of various molecules - between - 2 liquid phases - 2 gas
phases or liquid gas phase.
 Method of concentrating food substances  HEATING.
 Using HEAT will resulted a changes in product nutrients, active
ingredient and rheology.
 Therefore = MEMBRANCE SEPARATION IS COMMONLY USED
to concentrated the food substances without involving HEAT
during the process  FOOD QUALITY CAN BE ASSURED.
CONTINUE:
 PRINCIPLES OF MEMBRANE SEPARATION:
 Fluids that contain 2 or more component inside will be channelled through
membrane.
 Membrane will allowed only certain component to pass through compared to
the other components (SELECTIVITY).
 This selectivity properties will be affected the separation.
 The factors that effecting the selectivity is PORES SIZE OF THE MEMBRANE
 NORMAL PARTICLES FILTRATION  > 1m pores size
 MICRO FILTRATION  0.05 m - 1.3m pores size
 ULTRA FILTRATION  0.005 m - 0.3m pores size
 NANO FILTRATION  0.001 m - 0.01m pores size
 REVERSE OSMOSIS  < 0.001m pores size
 NOTE THAT: The smaller the pores size, the higher pressure
needed to run the separation process.
CONTINUE:

LIQUID PERMEATION MEMBRANCE PROCESS

CONTINUE:
 In membrane processes with liquids, the solute molecules
must first be transported or diffuse through the liquid film of
the first liquid phase on one side of the solid membrane,
through the membrane itself, and then through the film of
the second liquid phase.
 C1 = the bulk liquid-phase concentration of the diffusing
solute A in (Kg mol A/m3).
 C1i = the concentration of A in the fluid just adjacent to the
solid.
 C1iS = the concentration of A in the solid at the surface and is
in equilibrium with C1i.
 kc1 and kc2 = the mass transfer coefficient.
 K’ = the equilibrium distribution coefficient =
CONTINUE:
 So, MASS TRANSFER FLUX (PROFIL PEMINDAHAN JISIM)
through each phase are EQUAL to each other.

-------- {1}

into {1}

-------- {2}

Where;
PM = permeability in solid (m/s)
L = thickness in (m)
DAB = Diffusivity of A in the solid (m2/s)
CONTINUE:
SIMPLIFY THE EQUATION:

-------- {3}

Adding all equation {3} in ONE equation, the internal concentration c1i
and c2i drop out, the FINAL EQUATION :


EXAMPLE 1:
CONTINUE:
CONTINUE:
**LOGIN THE eLEARNING
SYSTEM TO GET THE
ADDITIONAL INFO ON
THE REVERSE OSMOSIS
APPLICATION**
1.4 BASIC MECHANISMS OF
HEAT TRANSFER
 Food processing always involve with a lot of heat transfer.
e.g.: Heat intake process: Pasteurization, sterilization &
concentration.
e.g.: Heat removal process: Freezing and Cooling.
 Heat transfer always occur from HOT MEDIUM (Medium
panas) TO FOOD MATERIAL OR FOOD MATERIAL TO COOL
MEDIUM (medium sejuk).
 3 ways of heat transfer :
 CONDUCTION = Pengaliran
 CONVENCTION = Perolakan
 RADIATION = Sinaran
CONDUCTION:
CONDUCTION (Pengaliran):
 Heat transfer through conduction involves energy transfer at
the molecules level.
 When a molecule were given an energy, it will VIBRATE at its
location.
 AMPLITUDE OF THE VIBRATION  will increased heat
energy.
 This vibration will transfer from one molecule to the other
molecule WITHOUT molecules translation movement (TIDAK
MELIBATKAN PERUBAHAN PADA PERGERAKAN MOLEKUL
ASAL  Only vibration).
 If there is a temperature gradient in the substances, the heat
transfer will occurred from the HIGH TEMPERATURE
REGION TO LOW TEMPERATURE REGION.
CONTINUE:
 The RATE OF HEAT TRANFER (q)/SURFACE AREA (A) is
called = HEAT TRANSFER FLUX (Profil Pemindahan Haba).
 THE HEAT FLUX for the heat transfer through CONDUCTION
is PROPORTIONAL with the TEMPERATURE GRADIENT.

 “Fourier’s First Law of Heat Transfer”

Where:
q = Heat transfer rate in direction x (W)
A = Surface area (m2)
(TABLE 4.1-1) --- k = Thermal conductivity for materials (W/m. K)
dT/dx = The temperature gradient in the x
direction (K/m)
CONTINUE:

 (-)  -ve sign shows that the heat is conduct (mengalir) from
the high temperature to the low temperature.
 dT/dx  This Gradient Temperature is the driving force
(daya penggerak) for the heat transfer.
 The heat conduction can be in the STEADY STATE OR IN
UNSTEADY STATE.
CONTINUE:
Under the steady state condition: (INTEGRATING AND
REARRANGING THE FOURIER’S FIRST LAW):


EXAMPLE 2:
CONVECTION:
CONVECTION (Perolakan):
 The way of heat transfer through CONVECTION is involving
the molecules movement from ONE LOCATION TO ANOTHER
LOCATION.
 It also involves heat energy exchanged (pertukaran tenaga
haba) to other molecules at a new location.
 2 types of CONVECTION:
 Free/natural convection (Perolakan bebas/tabii):
a) Occurred on its own without outside force.
b) It is because of the changes of DENSITY and
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENTIAL.
c) e.g.: Air with high temperature becoming less
dense and eventually flow upwards.
CONTINUE:
 Forced convection (Perolakan paksa)
a) Occurred when there was an OUTSIDE FORCE
(DAYA LUARAN) to the system.
b) The fluid is forced to flow by pressure
differences = e.g.: pump, fan etc.
 SO, THE HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH CONVECTION can
be represent using the “Newtonian Cooling Law”
CONTINUE:

q = hA(Tm - Ts)
Where: q = Heat transfer rate (W)
h = Convective coefficient (W/m2.K)
A = Surface area (m2)
Tm = Bulk of average temperature of the fluid (K)
Ts = Temperature of the wall in contact with fluid (K)
The higher h value means the higher of the heat transfer rate of the
convective system.
RADIATION
RADIATION (Sinaran):
 In radiant heat transfer, the medium through which the heat
is transferred usually not HEATED.
 Radiation heat transfer is the transfer of heat by
electromagnetic radiation.
 Medium to transfer heat is not applicable.
 No involvement of the molecules.
 Can occur in the vacuum.
 e.g.: x-rays, light waves, gamma rays
 e.g.: Furnace with boiler tubes, microwave oven baking.
CONTINUE:
 FLUX HEAT TRANSFER by radiation from solid surface can
be represent as:

q = TA4
Where: q = Heat transfer rate (W)
A = Surface area of the body (m2)
 = Constant Stefan-Boltzmann
(5.669 x 10-8W/m2.K4)
 = Emissivity (kepancaran)
TA = Temperature of the solid body (K)
 Emissivity for the PERFECT BLACK BODY = 1.0
 All real materials have an emissivity  < 1.0
1.5 CONDUCTION THROUGH
HOLLOW CYLINDER (Air-Metal-Fluid)
 In many examples in the process industries, HEAT IS
TRANSFERRED through the walls of a thick-walled cylinder
as in a pipe that may or may not be insulated.
 Figure below = HEAT (q) is flowing radially from inside to
outside.
CONTINUE:

REMEMBER ----------
 CONTINUE:

As if, A2/A1 > 1.5 ----------- = A2 - A1/In (A2/A1)

As if, A2/A1 < 1.5 ----------- A1m = A1 + A2/2 LOG MEAN AREA

Cylinder resistance ------------

Unit R = K/W
EXAMPLE 3:
LENGTH OF TUBING FOR COOLING COIL
A thick-walled cylindrical tubing of hard rubber having an
inside radius of 5 mm and an outside radius of 20 mm is being
used as a temporary cooling coil in a bath. Ice water is flowing
rapidly inside and the inside wall temperature is 274.9 K. The
outside surface temperature cooling coil is 297.1 K. A total of
14.65 W must be removed from the bath by cooling coil. How
many (m) of tubing are needed?
T2 = 297.1 K (outer cooling coil)
ANS:
WATER BATH ROOM q = 14.65 W must
be removed.
T1 = 274.9 K (inside coil) Tbath = not given.
Ice H2O
Length of cooling coil
tubing needed?
CONTINUE:
From TABLE 4.1.1: The thermal conductivity at 0 0C (273 K) is k
= 0.151 W/m.K. Since data at the other temperature (Tbath) not
given, assume that the outer temperature cooling coil (T2) that
contact with the wall of the bath room is same: T2 = Tbath

r1 = 5/1000 = 0.005 m; r2 = 20/1000 = 0.02 m

The calculation will be done first for a LENGTH OF 1.0 m of
tubing (Assumption):
A1 = 2Lr1 = 2(1.0m)(0.005m) = 0.0314 m2; A2 = 0.1257 m2

0.1257 – 0.0314
= -------------------------------- = 0.0680 m2
In (0.1257/0.0314)
CONTINUE:
Substituting into:

q = 0.151(0.0682)[(274.9 - 297.1)/(0.02 - 0.005)]

q = - 15.2 W in 1-m assumption length of cooling tube

(Negative sign indicates that the heat flow from r2 on the
outside and contact the bath room wall TO r1 on the inside.
Since 15.2 W is removed for a 1-m length (ASSUMPTION),
the ACTUAL length needed is:
Length = 14.65 W/15.2 (W/m) = 0.964 m
**Note that the thermal conductivity of rubber is quite
small. Generally, metal cooling coils are used, BUT the
thermal conductivity of metals is quite high  NOT
SUITABLE FOR SMALL COOLING CONDITION**
1.6 CONDUCTION THROUGH
MULTILAYER CYLINDER
(Air-Insulation-Metal-Fluid)
 In the process industries, HEAT TRANSFER OFTEN occurs
through MULTILAYERS OF CYLINDERS.
 e.g.: When heat is being transferred through the walls of an
insulated pipe.
 Figure below  shows a PIPE WITH TWO LAYERS OF
INSULATION AROUND IT, SO, we have 3 concentric hollow
cylinders.
 The heat transfer rate (q) = is same for each layer -----
STEADY STATE CONDITION
 CONTINUE:
METAL TUBE WALL = A

INSULATED 1 = B

INSULATED 2 = C

Radial heat flow through multiple cylinders in series

CONTINUE:

Where:

COMBINE the equations to eliminate T2 and T3. SO, THE FINAL EQUATION

 R = The overall
resistance is the SUM
of individual
resistances in series
EXAMPLE 4:
HEAT LOSS FROM AN INSULATED PIPE
A thick-wall tube of stainless steel (A) having a k = 21.63 W/m.K
with dimensions of 0.0254 m ID and 0.0508 m OD is covered
with a 0.0254 m layer of asbestos (B) insulation, k = 0.2423
W/m.K. The inside wall temperature of the pipe is 811 K and
the outside surface of the insulation is at 310.8 K. For a 0.305
m length of pipe, calculate the heat loss and also the
temperature at the interface between the metal and the
insulation.
ANS:
Calling T1 = 811 K, T2 (the interface) = ?, T3 = 310.8 K, the dimensions
are:
r1 = 0.0254/2 = 0.0127m; r2 = 0.0508/2 = 0.0254m;
r3 = (r2-r1) + r1 + 0.0254 m (layer of asbestos) = 0.0508m
CONTINUE:
The areas are as follows for L = 0.305 m
A1 = 2Lr1 = 2(0.305)(0.0127) = 0.024 m2
A2 = 2Lr2 = 2(0.305)(0.0254) = 0.0487 m2
A3 = 2Lr3 = 2(0.305)(0.0508) = 0.0974 m2
The log mean areas for the stainless steel (A) and asbestos (B)
are:
0.0487 - 0.024
= -------------------------------- = 0.0351 m2
In (0.0487/0.024)

0.0974 - 0.0487
= -------------------------------- = 0.0703 m2
In (0.0974/0.0487)
CONTINUE:
Asbestos (B)

Stainless Steel (A) 0.0254 m

Inside the pipe

(fluid or gas flow)

r3 .
r1
r2

q
CONTINUE:
The resistances (R) are:

r2 - r1 0.0125
RA = ---------- = ------------------- = 0.01673 K/W
kA . AAIm 21.63(0.0351)
r3 - r2 0.0254
RB = ---------- = ------------------- = 1.491 K/W
kB . ABIm 0.2423(0.0703)

Hence, the HEAT TRANSFER RATE IS:

811 - 310.8
T1 - T3 = -------------------- = 331.7 W
q = ------------ 0.01673 + 1.491
RA + RB

To calculate temperature T2:

“Only small temperature drop
T1 - T2 811 - T2 occurs across the metal wall
q = ------------ = ------------ = T 2 = 805.5 K because of its high thermal
RA 0.01673
conductivity”
1.7 COMBINED CONVECTION AND
CONDUCTION HEAT TRANSFER
(Fluid-Insulation-Metal-Fluid)
 In many practical situations the surface temperature (or
boundary conditions at the surface) are not known, but there
is a FLUID on both sides of the solid surfaces.
 Consider the plane wall in fig. 4.3-3a with HOT FLUID in T1
on the inside surface and COOL FLUID at T4 on the outside
surface.
 The outside CONVECTIVE COEFFICIENT is ho (W/m2.K) and
hi on the inside.
CONTINUE:
METAL TUBE WALL
 CONTINUE:

The HEAT TRANSFER RATE is using the combination of CONVECTIVE and CONDUCTION

Expressing 1/hiA,  xA/kAA and 1/hoA = R (resistances) and combine:

 CONTINUE:
SO, THE OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER RATE through the
cylinder will be:

T1 - T4 T 1 - T4
REMEMBER ---------- q = ------------------------------------------------- = -----------
1/hi . Ai + (ro - ri)/kA . AIm + 1/ho . Ao R
L = Length of a pipe
Where: Ai = 2..L.ri (The inside area of the metal tube)
Aim = Log mean Area of the metal tube.
Ao = The outside area.
CONTINUE:
The overall heat transfer by combined CONDUCTION & CONVECTIVE
is often expressed in terms of an OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER
COEFFICIENT (U) defined by:

Toverall = T1 - T4
A more important application is heat transfer from a fluid outside a
cylinder through a METAL WALL and to a fluid inside the TUBE, as often
occurs in “HEAT EXCHANGER”------ REFER FIG 4.3-3 (b)
 CONTINUE:
 The OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT (U) for the
cylinder may be based on the INSIDE AREA (Ai) or OUTSIDE
AREA (Ao) OF THE TUBE: So -----------

T1 - T4
REMEMBER ---------- q = Ui.Ai (T1 - T4) = Uo.Ao (T1 - T4) = -----------
R

1 1
Ui = ------------------------------------------------ = ---------
1/hi + (ro - ri) Ai /kA . AIm + Ai /Ao . ho Ai. R

1 1
Uo = ------------------------------------------------ = ---------
Ao /Ai . hi + (ro - ri) Ao /kA . AIm + 1/ho Ao. R
EXAMPLE 5:
Heat Loss by Convection and Conduction and Overall U
Saturated steam at 267 0F is flowing inside a ¾-in. steel pipe
having an ID of 0.824 in. and an OD 1.050 in. The pipe is
insulated with 1.5 in. of insulation on the outside. The convective
coefficient for the inside steam surface of the pipe is estimated as
hi = 1000 btu/h.ft2.0F and the convective coefficient on the
outside of the lagging (pembalut) is estimated as ho = 2
btu/h.ft2.0F. The mean thermal conductivity of the metal is 45
W/m.K or 26 btu/h.ft.0F and 0.064 W/m.K or 0.037 btu/h.ft.0F
for the insulation.
a) Calculate the heat loss for 1 ft of pipe using
resistances if the surrounding fluid outside the
insulated pipe is at 80 0F.
b) Repeat using the overall Ui based on the inside area Ai.
CONTINUE:

T0 = 80 0F Surrounding Fluid A

1.5 in.

ri
r0 r1

Lagging (B)

Stainless Steel (A)

Inside the pipe (saturated steam flow), Ti = 267 0F

CONTINUE:
ANS:
Calling ri the inside radius of the pipe steel pipe, r1 the outside
radius of the pipe & r0 the outside radius of the lagging
(pembalut), then:
ri = 0.0824/2 = 0.412 in. ---- convert to ft = 0.412/12 = 0.034 ft
r1 = 1.050/2 = 0.525 in. ---- convert to ft = 0.525/12 = 0.044 ft
ro = ri + (r1 - ri) + 1.5 in. = 0.412 + 0.113 + 1.5 = 2.025 in. ----
convert to ft = 2.025/12 = 0.169 ft

For 1 ft of pipe, the area are as follows:

Ai = 2Lri = 2(1)(0.034) = 0.2157 ft2
A1 = 2Lr1 = 2(1)(0.044) = 0.2750 ft2
A0 = 2Lr0 = 2(1)(2.025) = 1.060 ft2
CONTINUE:
The log mean areas for the STEEL PIPE (A) & LAGGING (B) are:

A1 - Ai 0.2750 - 0.2157
AAIm = ------------- = ------------------------ = 0.245 ft2
In (A1/Ai) In(0.2750/0.2157)
A0 - A1 1.060 - 0.2750
ABIm = ------------- = ------------------------ = 0.583 ft2
In (A0/A1) In(1.060/0.2750)

The various resistances are:

1 1
Ri = --------- = ------------------ = 0.00464
hi.Ai 1000(0.2157)

r1 - ri 0.044 - 0.034
RA = ------------ = --------------------- = 0.00148
kA.AAIm 26(0.245)
CONTINUE:

r0 - r1 0.169 - 0.044
RB = ----------- = --------------------- = 5.80
kB.ABIm 0.037(0.583)
1 1
R0 = ------- = ------------ = 0.472
h0.A0 2(1.060)

SO: Ti - T0 267 - 80
q = ------------------------- = ---------------------------------------------------
Ri + RA + RB + R0 0.00464 + 0.00148 + 5.80 + 0.472

q = 29.8 btu/hrs
CONTINUE:
Part (b):
Ti - To
q = Ui.Ai (Ti – T0) = -----------
R

1
Ui = ---------
Ai. R

So; Ui = 1/0.2157(6.278) = 0.738 btu/h.ft2.0F

Then, to calculate q =
q = Ui.Ai (Ti – T0) = (0.738)(0.2157)(267-80)
q = 29.8 btu/hrs (873 W)