ALLUSION

• a brief and indirect reference to a person, place,

thing or idea of historical, cultural, literary or
political significance.
• It does not describe in detail the person or thing
to which it refers. It is just a passing comment
and the writer expects the reader to possess
enough knowledge to spot the allusion and grasp
its importance in a text.
Examples of Allusion
“Don’t act like a Romeo in front of her.” –
“Romeo” is a reference to Shakespeare’s
Romeo, a passionate lover of Juliet, in “Romeo
and Juliet”.
The rise in poverty will unlock the Pandora’s
box of crimes. – This is an allusion to one of
Greek Mythology’s origin myth, “Pandora’s
box”.
IRONY
• A figure of speech in which words are used in
such a way that their intended meaning is
different from the actual meaning of the
words.
• It may also be a situation that ends up in quite
a different way than what is generally
anticipated.
• In simple words, it is a difference between
appearance and reality.
EXAMPLES OF IRONY
The name of Britain’s biggest dog was “Tiny.”
You laugh at a person who slipped stepping on
a banana peel, and the next thing you know,
you’ve slipped too.
The butter is as soft as a slab of marble.
“Oh great! Now you have broken my new
camera.”
METONYMY
• a figure of speech that replaces the name of a
thing with the name of something else with
which it is closely associated.
• We can come across examples of metonymy
both from literature and in everyday life.
EXAMPLES OF METONYMY
 “England decides to keep check on immigration.”
(England refers to the government.)
 “The pen is mightier than the sword.” (Pen refers
to written words, and sword to military force.)
 “The Oval Office was busy in work.” (The Oval
Office is a metonymy, as it stands for people who
work in the office.)
 “Let me give you a hand.” (Hand means help.)
OXYMORON
• A figure of speech in which two opposite ideas
are joined to create an effect. The common
oxymoron phrase is a combination of an adjective
proceeded by a noun with contrasting meanings,
such as “cruel kindness,” or “living death”.
• However, the contrasting words/phrases are not
always glued together. The contrasting ideas may
be spaced out in a sentence, such as, “In order to
lead, you must walk behind.”
EXAMPLES OF OXYMORON
Open secret
Tragic comedy
Seriously funny
Awfully pretty
Foolish wisdom
Original copies
Liquid gas
PARADOX
• The term paradox is from the Greek word
paradoxon, which means “contrary to
expectations, existing belief, or perceived
opinion.”
• It is a statement that appears to be self-
contradictory or silly, but which may include a
latent truth. It is also used to illustrate an opinion
or statement contrary to accepted traditional
ideas.
• A paradox is often used to make a reader think
over an idea in innovative way.
EXAMPLES OF PARADOX
Your enemy’s friend is your enemy.
I am nobody.
“What a pity that youth must be wasted on
the young.” – George Bernard Shaw
Wise fool
Truth is honey, which is bitter.
“I can resist anything but temptation.” – Oscar
Wilde
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PARADOX AND
OXYMORON
• It is important to understand the difference between
an oxymoron and a paradox.
• A paradox may consist of a sentence, or even a group
of sentences.
• An oxymoron, on the other hand, is a combination of
two contradictory or opposite words.
• A paradox seems contradictory to the general truth,
but it does contain an implied truth.
• An oxymoron, however, may produce a dramatic effect,
but does not make literal sense. Examples of oxymoron
are found both in casual conversations and in
literature.
LITOTES
• Litotes, derived from a Greek word
meaning “simple,” is a figure of speech
that employs an understatement by using
double negatives or, in other words, a
positive statement expressed by negating
its opposite expressions.
LITOTES
• For example, using the expression “not too bad”
for “very good” is an understatement, as well as
a double negative statement that confirms a
positive idea by negating the opposite (meaning
it’s good, by saying it’s not bad). Similarly,
saying “She is not a beauty queen,” means she
is ugly, or saying “I am not as young as I used to
be,” in order to avoid saying I am old. Litotes,
therefore, is an intentional use of
understatement that renders an ironic effect.
EXAMPLES OF LITOTES
They do not seem the happiest couple
around.
The ice cream was not too bad.
New York is not an ordinary city.
Your comments on politics are not
useless.
ANALOGY
An analogy is a comparison in which an idea
or a thing is compared to another thing that
is quite different from it.
It aims at explaining that idea or thing by
comparing it to something that is familiar.
Metaphors and similes are tools used to
draw an analogy. Therefore, analogy is more
extensive and elaborate than either a simile
or a metaphor.
ANALOGY
Consider the following example: The structure
of an atom is like a solar system. The nucleus is
the sun, and electrons are the planets revolving
around their sun.
• Here, an atomic structure is compared to a solar
system by using the word “like.” Therefore, it is
a simile. Metaphor is used to relate the nucleus
to the sun, and the electrons to the planets,
without using the words “like” or “as.” Hence,
similes and metaphors are employed to develop
an analogy.
ALLEGORY
• Allegory is a figure of speech in which abstract
ideas and principles are described in terms of
characters, figures, and events. It can be
employed in prose and poetry to tell a story,
with a purpose of teaching or explaining an
idea or a principle. The objective of its use is
to teach some kind of a moral lesson.
 Difference Between Allegory and
Symbolism
• Although an allegory uses symbols, it is different from
symbolism.
• An allegory is a complete narrative that involves
characters and events that stand for an abstract idea or
event.
• A symbol, on the other hand, is an object that stands
for another object, giving it a particular meaning.
Unlike allegory, symbolism does not tell a story. For
example, Plato, in his Allegory of Cave, tells a story of
how some people are ignorant, while at the same time
other people “see the light.” Plato’s allegory stands for
an idea and does not tell an actual story.
 Difference Between Allegory and
Symbolism
• Although an allegory uses symbols, it is different from
symbolism.
• An allegory is a complete narrative that involves
characters and events that stand for an abstract idea or
event.
• A symbol, on the other hand, is an object that stands
for another object, giving it a particular meaning.
Unlike allegory, symbolism does not tell a story. For
example, Plato, in his Allegory of Cave, tells a story of
how some people are ignorant, while at the same time
other people “see the light.” Plato’s allegory stands for
an idea and does not tell an actual story.
EXAMPLES OF ALLEGORY
• “All animals are equal but a few are more
equal than others.”
The animals on the farm represent different sections of
Russian society after the revolution.
For instance, the pigs represent those who came to power
following the revolution; “Mr. Jones,” the owner of the farm,
represents the overthrown Tsar Nicholas II; while “Boxer” the
horse, represents the laborer class. The use of allegory in the
novel allows Orwell to make his position clear about the
Russian Revolution and expose its evils.
CAESURA
• Everyone speaks, and everyone breathes while
speaking. For instance, when you say, “Maria
has taken a break,” you take breath before
further saying, “But Adam did not.” Then
again you take a little breath and say, “He fell
on his ankle.” Such pauses come from natural
rhythm of your speech. Poetry also uses
pauses in its lines.
CAESURA
• One such pause is known as “caesura,” which is a
rhythmical pause in a poetic line or a sentence. It
often occurs in the middle of a line, or sometimes
at the beginning and the end. At times, it occurs
with punctuation; at other times it does not.
Poets indicate such a pause with a parallel symbol
thus: ||. Caesura can be medial (occurring in the
middle of line), initial (occurring at the beginning
of poetic line), or terminal (occurring at the end
of a poetic line).
CAESURA
• One such pause is known as “caesura,” which is a
rhythmical pause in a poetic line or a sentence. It
often occurs in the middle of a line, or sometimes
at the beginning and the end. At times, it occurs
with punctuation; at other times it does not.
Poets indicate such a pause with a parallel symbol
thus: ||. Caesura can be medial (occurring in the
middle of line), initial (occurring at the beginning
of poetic line), or terminal (occurring at the end
of a poetic line).
TYPES OF CAESURA
1. Feminine Caesura
• A feminine caesural pause occurs after a non-
stressed and short syllable in a poetic line.
This is softer and less abrupt than the
masculine version. For instance:
“I hear lake water lapping || with low sounds
by the shore…”
TYPES OF CAESURA
2. Masculine Caesura
• Masculine pause occurs after a long or
accented syllable in a line. It creates a staccato
effect in the poem, such as:
“of reeds and stalk-crickets, || fiddling the
dank air,
lacing his boots with vines, || steering glazed
beetles”
DEUS EX MACHINA
• The term deus ex machina refers to the
circumstance where an implausible concept or
a divine character is introduced into a
storyline, for the purpose of resolving its
conflict and procuring an interesting outcome.
DEUS EX MACHINA
• The use of deus ex machina is discouraged, for
the reason that the presence of it within a plot
is viewed as a sign of an ill-structured plot.
• The explanation that the critics provide for
this view is that the writer’s sudden resort to
random, insupportable, and unbelievable
twists for the purpose of procuring an ending,
highlights the inherent deficiencies of the plot.
Hence, deus ex machina is a rather debatable,
and often criticized, form of literary device.
DEUS EX MACHINA
• The term is Latin for “god out of the machine,”
and has its origins in ancient Greek theatre. It
denotes scenes in which a crane (machine)
was used to lower actors or statues playing a
god or gods (deus) onto the stage to set things
right, usually near the end of the play.
FUNCTION OF DEUS EX MACHINA
• The tool of deus ex machina remains a popular
one even today, being employed in modern films,
novels, and short stories. However the scope of
the term has been effectively widened to present
it as a multifaceted tool.
• It can be employed for the purposes of moving a
story forward, or when the writer has “painted
himself into a corner” and finds no other escape.
He uses this to surprise the audience, to bring a
happy ending to the tale, or as a comedic device.