SECONDARY SCHOOL

CURRICULUM AND
INSTRUCTION
BY
Bereket Y.
 Unit One
Conceptual Definitions
• Like many of the academic subjects, the word
curriculum comes from a Latin word “currere”
meaning “race course
• Indeed until quite recently, even the most
knowledgeable professional educators regarded
curriculum as the relatively standardized ground
covered by students in their race towards the
finishing line to get certificate, diploma or degree.
 CONT…
• It should not be a surprise, then to find that many
current concepts of the curriculum are firmly
grounded in the notion that curriculum is a race
course of subject matters to be mastered.
 The definitions are classified as broad and specific:-
 Broad Definitions
• The broad definitions are open to many
interpretations. In other words, one broad definition
of the word curriculum contains different specific
concepts.
 Ralph Tyler (1949): All of the learning of students
which planned by and directed by the school to
attain; its educational goals.
 D.K Wheeler (1967): By curriculum we mean the
planned experiences offered to the learner under the
guidance of the school.
 CONT….
• J. Lewis (1981): Define curriculum as a plan for
providing sets of learning opportunities for persons
to be educated. Learning opportunity implies a
planned and controlled relationship between pupils,
teacher, materials, equipment and the environment,
in which it is hoped that desired learning will take
place.
• M. Shilbeck (1984): The learning experiences of
students, in so far as they are expressed or
anticipated in goals and objectives, plans and
designs for learning and the implementation of these
plans and designs in school environments.
 Cont…
• Glatthorn (1987): the curriculum is the plan made
for guiding learning in schools, usually represented
in retrievable documents of several levels of
generally, and the actualization of those plans in the
classroom, as experienced by the learners and as
recorded by an observer; those experiences take
place in a learning environment which also
influences what is learned
 Specific Definitions
The specific definitions imply activities, which are
measurable and observable. Examples:
• Curriculum is an outline of a course of study
(Murray Print, 1987).
• Curriculum is a set of subjects (Colin J. Marsh,
2001).
• Curriculum is a school timetable
 Based on the definitions given above, curriculum
could be characterized by the following features.
Such as:
 CONT…
• It has holistic or comprehensive intentions &
contents;
• It comprises the experiences of children which the
school is responsible for;
• It is a systematic & planned process;
• It is a series of courses to be taken by students;
• It considers the learners and their interaction with
each other, the teachers and the materials;
• It gives due consideration for student performance
enhancement & assessment; etc.
 CONT…
• Bringing all these points together ‘curriculum’ can
be viewed as:
• ‘a composite whole including the learners, the
teachers, teaching and learning methodologies,
anticipated and unanticipated experiences, outputs
and outcomes possible within a learning institution
 Foundations of Curriculum
• Curriculum foundations are those basic forces,
sources, or determinants that influence and shape the
contents and organization of the curriculum.
• The foundations of curriculum are also referring the
values, traditions, and factors/forces, which
influence the kind, quantity and quality of
experiences the school offers its learners
 Philosophical Foundations of
Curriculum
• It refers to values, ideals, and ideologies because
they represent points of view, which guide the
development of a curriculum at a particular time
• Philosophy is an important foundation of curriculum
because the philosophy advocated or reflected by a
particular school and its officials influence its goals
or aims and contents as well as the organization of
its curriculum.
• Philosophy deals with the larger aspects of life, the
problems and prospects of living, and the way we
organize our thoughts and facts
 CONT…
• It is an effort to see life and its problems in full
perspective.
• It requires looking beyond the immediate to causes
& relationships & to future developments.
• It involves questioning one’s own point of view as
well as the views of others
• it also involves searching for defined & defensible
values, clarifying one’s beliefs & attitudes, &
formulating a framework for making decisions &
acting on these decisions.
 Philosophy and Curriculum

• Philosophy provides curriculum workers with a

framework for organizing schools and classroom.
• It helps them answer what schools are for, what
subjects are of value, how students learn, what methods
& materials to use.
• It provides them with a framework for broad issues &
tasks, such as determining the goals of education, the
content & its organization, the process of teaching &
learning, & in general what experiences & activities
they wish to stress in schools & classrooms.
 CONT…
• As Goodlad (1971) pointed out, philosophy is the
beginning point in curriculum decision making & it
is the basis for all subsequent decisions regarding
curriculum.
• It becomes the criterion for determining the aims,
means, & ends for curriculum.
 Cont..
• The aims are statements of value,
based on philosophical believes;
• The means represent processes and
methods, which reflect philosophical
choices; and
• The ends, connote the facts, concepts,
and principles of the knowledge or
behavior learned, or what we feel is
important to learning
 Major Philosophies Influencing
Curriculum
A. Idealism/Rationalism
• The idealists assume that truth exists separate and
apart from the individual or the society in which
he/she lives.
• The truth must be discovered and thereafter
considered absolute.
• It emphasizes moral and spiritual reality as the chief
explanation for the world.
• Truth and values are seen as absolute, timeless, and
universal.
 CONT…

• The world of mind & ideas is permanent, regular,

orderly; it represents perfect order
• To know is to rethink the latent ideas that are
already present in the mind. The teacher’s task is to
bring this latent knowledge to consciousness.
• It is rationalistic i.e. it uses reasoning as the sole
approach to solve problems
• Some Advocators are: Plato, Socrates, Hegel,
Hume, Kant, Froebel, etc.
 Idealism and Curriculum
• According to the idealists, the curriculum is meant
to foster the intellectual process, learning involves
recalling & working with ideas; education is
properly concerned with conceptual matters
• The idealists’ curriculum is hierarchical, & it
constitutes the cultural heritage of humankind.
 CONT…
• E.g.- At the top of this hierarchy are the most
general or abstract subjects: philosophy and
theology
• Lower in the curriculum ladder are the natural &
physical sciences, which deal with particular cause-
&-effect relationships
 B. Realism/Empiricism
• The realists view the world in terms of objects &
matter
• People can come to know the world through their
senses & their reason.
• Everything is derived from nature & is subject to its
laws.
• Realists reject the notion that the real and true
world existed only in the mind of man.
 CONT…
• The realists believe that the universe is matter in
motion.
• To them the real world is the physical world.
• Realism emphasizes on the cause and effect
relationship in the physical world.
• Some advocators of realism are: Aristotle, Aquinas,
Pestalozzi, Broudy, etc.
 Realism and Curriculum

• Like the idealists, the realists stress a curriculum

consisting of organized, separate subject matter,
content, & knowledge that classifies objects.
• It is thought that true knowledge comes to the
learner only when he/she can assimilate facts and
see their relationships in an insight manner
 CONT…
• The curriculum under realism consists of the physical
and social sciences that explain natural phenomena.
• Less emphasis is placed on language and more
attention is given to mathematics, which is the symbolic
language so essential to accurate description of the
universe.
• Any subject, whether it pertains to the domain of the
science or arts, is not be included in the curriculum for
its own sake, but it will find a place in the curriculum
because of its particular utility in the actual life
situation of the pupils.
• The realists view subject matter experts as the source
of authority
 C. Pragmatism/Experimentalism
• In contrast to the traditional philosophies,
pragmatism is based on change, process, and
relativity.
• Learning occurs as the person engages in problem
solving and knowing is considered a transaction
between learner and environment.
• Both the learner & environment are constantly
changing, as are the transactions or experiences.
• In seeking knowledge they make use of the
hypothesis (as if-then statements
 Cont…

• The only guides that people have in their interaction

with the social world or environment are established
generalizations or tentative assertions that are
subject to further research & verification.
• Pragmatists believed that ‘whatever fulfils one’s
purposes & develops his/her life is true.’
• Some advocators of pragmatism are: Darwin,
Dewey, etc.
 Pragmatism and Curriculum
• To the pragmatists all educational values are to be
evaluated in terms of the practical differences they
make in life.
• The focal point for organizing the curriculum here
is the interest of the child rather than the traditional
subject matter organization.
• The subject matter is used in relation to the needs
and interests of the learner at a time when it can
contribute to his experience in solving problems.
• The contents of the curriculum must be selected
from different activities of real life.
 Cont…

• Language, hygiene, history, geography, physical

training, science, agriculture & others should
comprise the curriculum.
• Pragmatists believe ‘in unity of knowledge &
skills.’
• Therefore, they want to follow the principle of
integration in curriculum construction.
 D. Existentialism
• According to existentialist philosophy, people are
drive into a number of choice-making situations.
• Some choices are minor & others are significant, but
the choice is the individual’s, & the decisions lead to
personal self-definition.
• We are what we choose to be.
• Therefore, learners should be free to choose what to
study.
• Some prominent advocators are: Greene, Kneller,
Morris, etc
 Existentialism and Curriculum
• The existentialists’ curriculum avoids systematic
knowledge or structured discipline, & the students
would be free to select from many available learning
situations.
• The learners would choose the knowledge they
wish to possess.
• The curriculum would stress self-expressive
activities, experimentation, & methods & media that
illustrate emotions, feelings, & insights.
 Historical Foundations of Curriculum:

• Historical foundation refers to a systematic analysis

of curriculum developments during a given period
• They may be found in the form of a chronological
recording of educational incidents pertaining to
curriculum or by delineating and tracing various
educational movements during a selected period
 Cont..
• Knowledge of history is essential to making
responsible curriculum decisions.
• Knowing what happened before can help us make
better judgments about what might happen today or
tomorrow under similar or different situations.
• Studying the past might remind us to ask questions
about what we might have overlooked.
 Cont…
• In general, the study of curriculum history can help
us develop more constructive attitudes toward the
present

 Psychological Foundations of Curriculum

 consist of the accumulated knowledge which guides
the learning process & allows the teacher who is
executing the curriculum to make intelligent
decisions regarding the behavior of the learner
 Cont…
• are crucial to have understanding about human behavior
& they are important in planning curriculum
experiences for the learner.
• Humans are biological beings influenced by their
biology & their cultures & influencing their biology &
cultures.
• Our intellect is an ever changing, dynamic, & complex.
• The psychological foundations of curriculum will assist
us in learning more about this complex & dynamism.
• So that we, as curricularists, can create educational
programs that will nurture more advanced, more total,
more complete human learning.
 Some of the theories that have been propounded in
this regard are the following.
A. Behaviorism:
• The behaviorists, who represent traditional
psychology, emphasize conditioning behavior &
altering the environment to elicit responses from the
learner.
• That is, behavior is the result of an individual’s
response to events taking place in one’s
environment.
• These are stimuli (message), which elicit responses
(learning in the learner).
 Cont…

• The behaviorists believe that the curriculum should

be organized so students experience success in
mastering the subject matter
• Although what influences learning differs for
different students, curriculum specialists can adopt
procedures to increase the likelihood that each
student will find learning relevant & enjoyable.
 B. Cognitivism/Cognitive Psychology:

• Cognitive theorists believe that learning is the result

of our attempt to make sense of the world with
mental tools at the disposal.
• They explain that the ways we think about
situations along with our knowledge, expectations,
feelings, and interactions with others influence how
and what we learn
 Cont…
• Pupils are regarded as active learners who initiate
experiences, seek out information to solve the
problems and recognize what they already know to
achieve new insights.
• Instead of being passively influenced by the
environment, events, people actively choose
practices, pay attention, ignore and make many other
divisions as they pursue goals.
• Cognitivists place their focus on the students and
how they gain and organize their knowledge
(cognize).
• Students do not merely receive information, but
actively create a pattern of what it means to them.
C. Phenomenology/Humanistic Psychology
• Phenomenologists point out that the way we look at
ourselves is basic for understanding our behavior.
• What we do, even to what extent we learn, is
determined by our concepts of ourselves.
• If someone thinks he or she is Napoleon, he or she
will act like him, or at least convey his or her
concept of Napoleon.
• If someone thinks he or she is dull or stupid, his or
her cognitive performance will be influenced by that
self-concept
 Cont…

• Because each individual has specific needs &

interests related to his or her self-fulfillment & self-
realization, there is no generally prescribed
humanistic curriculum.
• Rather, the learners draw on those experiences,
subject matter, & intellectual skills necessary to
attain their full potential.
 Sociological Foundation of Curriculum

• Are defined as the concepts & theories of the way

that groups manifest themselves in their culture.
• Encompass the systematic study of groups &
institutions in the culture with reference to their
contribution to the process & growth of the
educational system as well as the established
practices in the school system.
 Cont…
• The curriculum designer actually deals with cultural
values, social needs, & the learners’ background.
• To a considerable extent, the institutions and forces
that make up the culture determine the curriculum.
• Because the curriculum is always, in every society, a
reflection of ‘what the people think, feel, believe, &
do?’
 Cont…
• The curriculum should be able to examine & clarify
obstacles prevalent in society, which make change.
• The curriculum designer should also understand
what culture & what the essential elements of
culture are? & how these are organized &
interrelated?
• A culture is the fabric of ideas, believes, skills,
aesthetic objects, methods of thinking, customs, &
institutions into which each member of the society is
born.
• A culture in other words consists of things the
people have learned to do, to believe, to value, to
enjoy, & so on in the course of their history.
 cont...
• A desirable curriculum is one that reflects a
consistent cultural point of view & attempts to
achieve a mutual adjustment of cultural elements in
terms of a common orientation.
• The task of curriculum building will be principally
that of constructing the curriculum so that cultural
elements, both old & new will be mutually adjusted
& a new cultural synthesis achieved
 Teachers and Curriculum Relationship
• Clearly teachers participate in a multiplicity of curriculum
activities at a classroom level.
• These are very substance of their daily teaching tasks such
as selection of specific content, selection of teaching
strategies, and use of audio-visual media and so on.
• In recent years, teachers are participating more in
curriculum decision-making at the school level.
• The nature of this participation may be seen in the various
roles that teachers adopt in the decision-making process.
• It is suggested curriculum decision-making roles at the
school level.
• These are as implementers, adopters, developers,
researchers and evaluators.
 Cont…
• As implementer or receiver, the teacher’s role is to
apply curriculum developed elsewhere.
• Most curriculum writers specializing in curriculum
change would argue that teacher support is essential for
the effective implementation of any curriculum
innovation.
• Alternatively, the teacher could adopt the role of adapter
or modifier.
• Here, an externally developed curriculum is interpreted
and changed to meet the needs of a particular school
population.
• This modification has occurred because teachers on the
schools staff perceive that the curriculum concerned
does not adequately meet the needs of their students.
 Cont…
• The curriculum developer role involves the
teacher in designing and developing, usually
as a member of a group, a curriculum to meet
student needs.
• Through the use of techniques such as
situational analysis and needs assessment,
teachers are able to determine the nature of
students’ needs.
• Using this database they are able to develop an
appropriate curriculum to meet those needs.
 Cont…
• Finally, teachers may undertake the role of
curriculum researcher.
• Here, the staff may be involved in improving one’s
own practice, testing curriculum materials,
evaluating new curricula, testing teaching strategies
and collecting data on student needs.
• Teachers can conduct action research.
• Thus, from the above two points of view, there is an
intimate relationship and inter dependence between
the professional teacher and the curriculum.
 Unit two
Curriculum Development/Design
A. Curriculum Development:-
• For Phillips (2008) curriculum development is a
process involving many different phases and
procedures.
• Thus, it is usually linear and follows a logical step-
by-step fashion involving the following phases:
• curriculum planning, curriculum design, curriculum
implementation and curriculum evaluation.
 Cont…
• Many curriculum development models have been
proposed.
• Generally, most models involve four phases:-
• First is, curriculum planning which involves
decisions about the philosophy of education and
the aims of education
• The second phase is curriculum design which
refers to the way curriculum is conceptualized and
involves the selection and organization of content,
and the selection and organization of learning
experiences or activities.
 Cont…
• The third phase is curriculum implementation in
the classroom setting:-
 It involves getting people to practice the ideas in
the curriculum, providing them with the necessary
resources, training and encouragement.
• The fourth phase is curriculum evaluation which is
determining the extent to which the efforts in
implementing the ideas of the curriculum have
been successful.
• It involves identification of factors that have
hindered implementation as well as success stories;
and most important whether students have
benefited from the program
 Curriculum Design

• It is somehow an overlapping to the curriculum

development process but specifically it refers to the
arrangement of the elements of a curriculum into a
substantive entity or unit.
• That is, it refers to the naming of the arrangements
of certain curriculum components.
• The design often is influenced by the curricular
approach and the philosophical orientation of those
responsible for the design of the curriculum
 Models of Curriculum Design/Development
• Curriculum design/development is a complex but
systematic process as it is at a glance so far
indicated.
• This topic describes a variety of models of
curriculum design in order to make this complex
activity understandable and manageable.
• A model can give order for the process of
curriculum development.
• There are debates among educators about what
model to follow in order to achieve particular
educational goal.
 Cont…

• As there are different perspectives of defining

curriculum, there are also different approaches to the
design and development of curriculum.
• This is because those who design a curriculum
design it according to their conception or
understanding of what curriculum is.
• These approaches are referred to as models of
curriculum design
 Cont…

• There are many models of curriculum

development/design, but under this topic, we will
discuss about the ‘Objective Model’, the ‘Process
Model’, & the models of some renowned persons in
the field of curriculum
 The Objectives/Prescriptive Model:-

• This model is influenced by behavioral psychology

& makes use of the objectives expressed in
behavioral terms.
• The model contains content that is based on specific
objectives.
• These objectives should specify expected learning
outcomes in terms of specific measurable behaviors
 Cont…
 This model comprises four main steps:
• Agreeing on broad aims which are analyzed into
objectives,
• Constructing a curriculum to achieve these
objectives,
• Refining the curriculum in practice by testing its
capacity to achieve its objectives, and
• Communicating the curriculum to the teachers
through the conceptual framework of the objectives
(Gatawa, 1990).
Cont….
 Cont…
 Moreover, in this model:-
• Evaluation is done at each sage of the curriculum
design.
• Content, materials, and methodology are derived
from the objectives
 The Process/Descriptive Model:-

This is a model of curriculum development in which

content or context as well as principles &
procedures are specified rather than anticipated
outcomes in terms of objectives.
• Unlike the objectives model, the process model
does not consider objectives to be important.
• Using this model presupposes that:
 Cont…

• Content has its own value.

 Therefore, it should not be selected on the basis of
the achievement of objectives.
• Content involves procedures, concepts, and criteria
that can be used to appraise the curriculum.
• Translating content into objectives may result in
knowledge being distorted.
• Learning activities have their own value and can be
measured in terms of their own standard. For this
reason, learning activities can stand on their own
Cont…
 Cont…
 Furthermore, in the process model:-
• Content and methodology are derived from the
goals. Each of them has outcomes that can be
evaluated.
• The evaluation results from the outcome are fed into
the goals, which will later influence the content and
methodologies. Unlike the objectives model, there is
no direct evaluation of the content and
methodologies.
 Other Curriculum Development Models:-
A. Tyler’s Model:
One of the best known curriculum models is the Tyler
Model introduced in 1949 by Ralph Tyler in his classic
book Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction in
which he asked 4 questions:
1. What educational purposes should the school seek to
attain?
2. What educational experiences can be provided that are
likely to attain these purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively
organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are
being attained?
 Cont…
 In essence, Tyler’s questions represent the four-step
sequence of:-
(1) identifying purposes or objectives,
(2) selecting the means for the attainment or
achievement of these objectives i.e. what
educational or teaching-learning experiences have to
be provided for students,
(3) organizing these educational or teaching-learning
experiences, and
(4) evaluating the outcomes or what have students
attained or achieved.
 Cont…
 By “purposes”, Tyler was referring to “objectives”
and when developing curriculum objectives data
should be gathered from three sources, namely;
• Suggestions from subject matter specialists
(Since subject specialists are experts or
professionals, their suggestions could be utilized )
• Study of the learners (the needs, interests and back
ground of the learners should be carefully
investigated)
• Study of the contemporary life ( the society need
to be systematically studied and incorporated in the
objectives of the school curriculum).
 Cont..

• After identifying the objectives (which are the

desired learning outcomes), the curriculum
developer has to pass them through two screens:
• the philosophy screen and the psychology screen.
• Resulting from this are specific instructional
objectives which state the kind of outcomes that are
observable and measurable.
 Cont…
• The next step is the selection of educational
experiences which enable the attainment of the
stipulated objectives.
• The learning experiences have to take into account
the previous experiences learners bring to a
situation.
• The learning experiences will have to be selected
based on what is known about human learning and
human development
 Cont…
• Next, Tyler talked about the organization and
sequencing of these learning experiences.
• He emphasized that the experiences should be
properly organized so as to enhance learning and
• suggested that ideas, concept, values, and skills be
used as organizing elements woven into the
curriculum.
• These elements would serve as organizers linking
content within a particular subject and also
determine the method of instruction or delivery of
content.
 Cont…

• Finally, Tyler proposed that evaluation should be an

important part of the curriculum development
process.
• It was necessary for educators to know whether
the selected learning experiences produced the
intended results.
• Through evaluation it will be possible to determine
whether the curriculum was effective or ineffective
Cont…
 B. The Taba Model
Another approach to curriculum development was
proposed by Hilda Taba in her book Curriculum
Development: Theory and Practice published in
1962.
She argued that there was a definite order in creating
a curriculum.
She believed that teachers, who teach the curriculum,
should participate in developing it which led to the
model being called the grass-roots approach
 Cont…

• She noted seven major steps to her grass-roots

model in which teachers would have major input.
• She was of the opinion that the Tyler model was
more of an administrative model.
• The Tyler model involved too much top-down
decision making, the greater portion of curriculum
decisions were made by administrators in the
Central Office or the Ministry of Education.
 Cont…
• Taba felt that a curriculum should be designed by
the users of the program.
• Teachers should begin the process by creating
specific teaching-learning units for their students.
• She advocated that teachers take an inductive
approach to curriculum development.
• This meant starting with the specifics and building
toward a general design this was just the opposite
of the more traditional deductive approach which
starts with the general design and then working
toward the specifics.
 Cont…
• Taba proposed seven major steps to her grass-roots
model in which teachers would have major input
throughout the curriculum development process:
1. Diagnosis of Needs: the teacher who is also the
curriculum designer starts the process by identifying
the needs of students for whom the curriculum is
planned.
2. Formulation of Objectives: after the teacher has
identified needs that require attention, he or she
specifies objectives to be accomplished
 Cont…

3. Selection of Contents: the objectives selected or

created suggest the subject matter or content of the
curriculum. Not only should objectives and content
match, but also the validity and significance of the
content chosen needs to be determined, i.e. the
relevancy and significance of content.
4. Organization of Contents: the content selected must
be organized in some type of sequence, taking into
consideration the maturity of learners, their
academic achievement, and their interests.
 Cont…

5. Selection of Learning Experiences: content must be

presented to students and students must be engaged
with the content.
 At this point, the teacher selects instructional
methods that will involve the students with the
content
 Cont…
6. Organization of Learning Activities: just as content
must be sequenced and organized, so must the
learning activities.
 Often, the sequence of the learning activities is
determined by the content.
 But the teacher needs to keep in mind the particular
students whom he or she will be teaching
7. Evaluation and Means of Evaluation: the
curriculum planner must determine just what
objectives have been accomplished.
 Evaluation procedures need to be designed to
evaluate learning outcomes
 Cont…
• Taba’ model has much merit.
• However, some argue that teachers’ involvement
throughout the process assumes that they have the
expertise and, perhaps more importantly, the time to
engage in such an extensive and intensive curricular
activity.
• Teachers being involved in the early stages of
curriculum development may not necessarily be an
advantage as it will not necessarily guarantee an
effective curriculum since it is a highly specialized
process
 Cont…
• However, it cannot be denied that curriculum
development requires the involvement of many
parties at various stages of the process.
• It involves individuals from the Central Office or the
Ministry of Education, district education officers,
principals, teachers, community leaders, subject
matter experts, other academics, and even students
 C. Wheeler’s Model

• Wheeler’s model for curriculum design is an

improvement upon Tyler’s model.
• Instead of a linear model, Wheeler emphasized on
the cyclical nature of the curriculum process & the
interdependent nature of the curriculum elements.
• Evaluation in Wheeler’s model is not terminal.
• Findings from the evaluation are feedback into the
objectives and the goals, which influence other
stages
Cont…
 Cont…

NB. Wheeler contends that:-

• Aims should be discussed as behaviors referring to
the end product of learning which yields the ultimate
goals.
• Aims are formulated from the general to the specific
in curriculum planning.
• Content is distinguished from the learning
experiences which determine that content
 D. Kerr’s Model:

• Most of the features in Kerr’s model resemble those

in Wheeler’s and Tyler’s models.
• However, Kerr divided the domains into four areas
(Urevbu, 1985): They are:-
1. Objectives,
2. Knowledge,
3. Evaluation, &
4. School Learning Experiences
Cont…
 Cont…
• According to Keer’s model, the four domains are
interrelated directly or indirectly.
• Objectives are derived from school learning
experiences and knowledge & they can be grouped
as cognitive, affective, & psychomotor.
• Knowledge should also be organized, integrated,
sequenced, & reinforced.
• Evaluation is the collection of information for use
in making decision about the curriculum. It can be
held at any time
 Cont…
• School leaning experiences are influenced by
societal opportunities, the school community, pupil
and teacher relationships, individual differences,
teaching methods, content & the maturity of the
learners.
• These experiences are evaluated though tests,
interviews, assessments, and other methods
• In his model, Kerr asserts that everything influences
everything else and that it is possible to start an
analysis at any point (Urevbu, 1985).
 E. Lawton’s Model

• Lawton model assumes that curriculum development

is based on the position that education is the process
of the transmission of culture from one generation to
next generation.
• The school is a miniature society.
• That is the school and what is taking place in the
school represent the larger society in its small scale.
 Cont…

• Lawton (1975) defined curriculum ‘as a design of a

social group.’
• That is the contents of the school curriculum need
to be the embodiment of what is considered in the
society
• The culture of the society is considered as the
important source of information for the design and
development of school curriculum
 Cont…

He forwarded five stages model for curriculum

development. The steps are the following:-
i. Philosophical Questions (cultural universals):
ii. Sociological Questions (cultural variables):
iii. Selection from Culture:
iv. Psychological Questions and Theories:
v. Curriculum Organization in Stages & Sequences:
Cont…
 Cont…
 Philosophical questions define the why of
education.
 In studying the existing society significant socio-
economic variables need to be examined in terms of
its tradition, history, and economic activities.
 Psychological questions are raised to define and
come up with theories and principles about the
principle of learning, teaching, and the nature of the
child.
 These theories and principles help in order to select,
organize, and implement the elements of curriculum.
 Cont…

• The task of organizing the curriculum is carried out

on the basis their prerequisite requirement and
difficulty.
• Thus the nature of the subject matter as well as the
maturity level of the learners could serve as criteria
sequencing the curriculum.
Patterns of Curriculum Design/Development

The pattern roughly refers to the ways/traditions

through which the content & learning experience
would be designed or developed
• There are two known patterns of curriculum
design/development. They are:-
Centralized Pattern,
 Decentralized Pattern
 Centralized Pattern of Curriculum Design

• It is one in which the content is decided upon by a

central national office.
• The actual work in designing the curriculum may be
completed by a contracted consulting company, a
parastatal organization or a division of the Ministry
of Education.
 Characteristics of a centralized pattern of
curriculum designing (Gatawa, 1990): -

• The subject content is decided upon centrally.

• National syllabuses are produced with national goals
and philosophies as well as suggested general
learning objectives.
• Subject content evaluation instruments are
developed centrally and decisions on when and how
to administer these instruments rest with the
Ministry of Education
 Cont…

• Subjects to be offered by schools are determined

centrally. Schools choose their subjects from a given
list.
• All learners taking the same subject write the same
examination and are assessed in the same skills.
• However, adjustments in testing are made for
students who may have certain disabilities.
• Certification is centrally controlled.
 Decentralized Patterns of Curriculum Design

• Occurs when the local authorities or individual

states draft their own curriculum.
• This type of designing is common in developed
countries.
• However, some developing countries with large
populations and states, such as Nigeria, use the
decentralized pattern of curriculum design.
 Characteristics of Decentralized Patterns of
Curriculum Design:-

• Local communities initiate the changes to suit their

local needs.
• Teachers work with the parents to determine the
content. The learning experiences are based on what
is available.
• Subjects in schools could be the same, but the
content will vary from school to school, state to
state, or district to district.
 Cont..

• Each school, state or district has its own syllabus

that is produced locally.
• Generally, the textbooks may not have been
centrally approved
• Each school, state or district has its own form of
evaluation.
• Very few people are involved in curriculum
designing.
Elements of Curriculum Design/Development
1. Educational Aims, goals and objectives
Aims of Education:
• Educators have tried to define the term “Aim” in
various ways. Such as:
- Producing a basic orientation for the designer or user
of the curriculum.
- General statements that provide both shape and
direction to the more specific actions designed to
achieve some future product or behavior.
- The starting points that allow educators to rally
behind them
 Cont…

• Aims are supposed to serve the crucial function of

guiding education, but they cannot be directly
observed and evaluated.
• They are orientations, not specific observable
outcomes.
• They are too general to guide particular
instructional decisions.
 Goals of Education
• Goals in contrast to aims are not open statements.
They are:
- Specific statements written so that those responsible
for program creation can use them as guidelines to
achieve particular purposes.
• Goals are derived from various aims and thus
provide the teachers and curriculum decision makers
with broad statements of what they should
accomplish in terms of student learning as a result of
particular subject or educational program
 Educational Objectives

• The term objective is in more specific sense.

• It normally refers to an intended or pre specified
outcome of a planned program of teaching, and it is
expressed in terms of what it is hoped the student
will have learned.
• Objectives can be general objectives or specific
objectives
 General Objectives
• are broad statements that describe what students
will be able to do after a given learning process has
been successfully completed.
• They are intended outcomes of instruction usually
written in broad terms .
• Eg:- To know, understand, comprehend, grasp,
enjoy, appreciate, believe etc..
 So that they can encompass other more specific
learning outcomes
• can be applied to a specific course.
 Specific Objectives
• are precise statements that describe what a student
will be able to do at the end of certain instructional
process.
• They are intended outcomes of instruction stated in
terms of specific and observable student
performance.
• Specific objectives use action verbs such as tell,
write, solve, discriminate, use etc. to indicate the
intended terminal behavior of students.
 Taxonomy of Educational objectives

Bloom & others taxonomy of objectives

• When generating objectives, educators ideally
consider all domains of learning & distinguished as
cognitive, affective, and psychomotor
 A. The cognitive domain

• It represents the intellectual component of mental

life and
• is certainly the most basic one from the viewpoint of
education.
• The taxonomy categorizes cognitive learning in to
six major divisions; each upper division subsumes
the previous ones
Cont…
 Cont…
Analysis The ability to break down materials into its Break down, diagram,
component so that its organizational structure differentiate, point out etc..
may be understood. It requires an
understanding of both content and the
structural form of the material
 B. Affective Domain

• Relates to the manner in which we deal with things

involving our emotions;
• such as our feelings, our values, how we appreciate
something, our enthusiasm for something, what
motivates us to do something and our attitudes
towards something.
Cont…
Cont…
 C. Psychomotor Domain
• The psychomotor domain is less known compared
to the other two taxonomies.
• There are several interpretations of the domain.
• The psychomotor domain involves physical
movement, coordination and use of the motor-skill
areas.
• Developments of these skills require practice and
are measured in terms of speed, precision, distance,
procedures, or techniques in execution
Cont…
Cont…
 2.The Selection of Contents and Learning
Experiences

• ‘Content’ is equated directly with ‘knowledge’.

• Content is defined as the subject matter of the
teaching-learning process and it includes the
knowledge (facts, concepts, generalizations,
principles and so forth)
 Cont…
• The term learning experience refers to the
interaction between the learner and the external
conditions to which he/ she can act
• In general, learning experience is the mental
operation that students employ in learning content.
• They are the key factors that shape the learners'
orientations to the content and, ultimately their
understanding of it.
 Criterion for selecting and organizing of
content and learning experience
• Validity-effective-bringing about the results or
ends intended
• Significance- importance of content for learner
• Interest- based on the needs of the learners
• Learn ability- including the different abilities of
learners
• Consistency with social reality
 3. Curriculum Organization

• Defined as the arrangement of the components or

elements of a curriculum into a substantive entity
• These two types of relationships are referred to as:-
1.horizontal relationship and
2. vertical relationship
 I. Horizontal Relationship
• It engages the curriculum planner with concepts of
scope and integration that is, the side-by-side
arrangement of curriculum elements.
• Refers to the relationship of ideas of different
areas/subjects taught at the same time
• Eg. Taking content from one subject, such as
mathematics, and relating it to content in another,
such as science
 II. Vertical Organization
• Refers to the relationship of ideas contents over time
vertical organization, which centers on the concepts
of sequence and continuity
• Eg Placing the “family” in first grade and the
“community” in the second grade social studies
 4. Curriculum Implementation
• It is a process of putting the developed / planned
curriculum into effect.
• The term implementation refers to the actual use of a
curriculum.
• Points to be considered in curriculum
implementation are planning, communicating,
cooperating, supporting and training.
 5. Curriculum Evaluation
• It refers to the accumulation of comprehensive
evidence concerning the abilities, status and
problems of children by means of formal as well as
informal procedures.
• Many scholars defined evaluation as “the
determination of the worth of a thing
 Unit Three
Curriculum Implementation, Evaluation and
Curriculum Change

Definitions of Curriculum Implementation:

• It entails putting in to practice the officially
prescribed course of study, syllabuses and subjects
• The process involves helping the learner acquire
knowledge or experience.
 Factors Contributing toward
Curriculum Implementation

• The Conditions of Teachers- Teachers must be

involved in curriculum planning and development.
So, they can implement & modify the curriculum for
the benefit of their learners.
• The Conditions of Learners- Learners need their
diverse needs & desires to be addressed in the
course of curriculum implementation.
Thus, make sure that their needs are satisfied during
the implementation process
 Cont…
• The Status of Resource Materials and Facilities-
The availability & quality of resource materials &
the availability of facilities have also a great
influence on curriculum implementation
• Interest Groups- They are peoples who are
supposed to influence the implementation of
curricula.
• E.g. parents, parents’ & teachers’ associations,
school development associations, school
development committees, religious organizations,
local authorities, different companies, & others.
 Cont…
• The Status of Instructional Supervision- It is
essential in providing continuous & regular
professional & technical support for individual
teacher.

• The Condition of the School the School

Environment
 Curriculum Evaluation:
• It is the process of describing and judging and
educational program or subject.
• It is also the process of comparing a student’s
performance with behaviorally stated objectives.
 Comprehensively speaking, it is the process of
defining, obtaining, and using relevant information
for decision making process.
 Forms of Curriculum Evaluation:
• There are two forms of curriculum evaluation
1. Formative Evaluation:
• The term formative indicates that data is gathered
during the formation or development of the
curriculum
• In formative evaluation, experts would evaluate the
match between the instructional strategies and
materials used, and the learning outcomes or what it
aims to achieve.
• is undertaken to improve an existing program
 2. Summative evaluation
• The term summative indicates that data is collected
at the end of the implementation of the curriculum
programme
• can occur just after new course materials have been
implemented in full (i.e. evaluate the effectiveness
of the programme),
 Principles of Curriculum Evaluation
1. Determination and identification of what is to be
evaluated:
Eg: are you going to evaluate:
- quality
- end result
- recall
- skill
- level of understanding
 Cont…
2. Make use of a variety of instrument to generate
sufficient data:
Eg:- use document analysis
- observation
- interview
- questionnaire etc.
 Cont…

3. Make involve all those who are concerned

4. Self evaluation supplemented by out side experts
5. Evaluation must be comprehensive
6. Curriculum must be constructive
7. Curriculum must have continuity
8. Curriculum has to be a means to identify both short
and long range problem
9. Evaluation must be for further action
 Evaluation Procedures to be followed
• Evaluation procedure could be devised in
accordance with the educational level it is meant to
check.
• It could be organized to evaluate total educational
program or a given curriculum or certain instruction.
• To do so, it requires substantial judgment and this
substantial judgment could be achieved if the
following, steps are followed as evaluation
procedures.
 Step 1: identifying the Objective:
the process of evaluation begins with the
identification of educational objectives.
( Since the main task of evaluation is to see how far
the objectives are achieved, they have to be clearly
defined in order to have a clear conception of the
sort of behavior implied by them)
 Step 2: Identifying the Situations:
 This step refers to the identification of the situations
which will give the student the chance to express the
behavior that is implied by the educational objectives.
 i.e. We must find situations that give opportunity to the
learners to acquire the expected types of behavior

Step 3: Establishing Evaluation Instruments

 Here, we identify particular tests and examine them to
see how far they fit into the type of objectives that are
to appraised and how far they agree to the learning
situations meant to produce the expected behavior
 Cont…

Step 4: Data collection, discussion &

interpretation :
 Step 5: Value judgment:
The curriculum should be judged in relation to the
culture of the society it is serving
 Curriculum Change and/or Innovation
Meaning of Curriculum Change:
• It is as embracing the concepts of development,
renewal, and improvement of a curriculum.
Curriculum Innovation
• It refers to ideas or practices that are new and
different from those that exist in the formal
prescribed curriculum
 Forms of Curriculum Change
Curriculum change can occur in the following forms:-
i .Substitution:
• One element replaces another previously in use.
ii. Alteration:
• This involves change in existing structures rather than a
complete replacement of the whole curriculum, syllabus or
course of study.
iii. Addition:
• This is the introduction of a new component without
changing old elements or patterns.
iv. Restructuring:
• This involves the rearrangement of the curriculum in orders
to implement desired changes
 Steps used in the process of curriculum
change /innovation
1.Identify a problem, dissatisfaction or need that requires
attention.
2. Generate possible solutions to that identified problem or
need.
3. select a particular solution or innovation that has been
identified as the most appropriate
4. Conduct a trial.
5. Evaluate the proposed solution.
6. Review the evaluation.
7. If the innovation has solved the identified problem,
implement it on a wide scale.
8. Adopt and institutionalize the innovation or search for
another solution
 Resistance to Curriculum Change
• People are the key to curriculum implementation
effort but not always are people ready to accept
curriculum change.
• The people’s resistance to change can be attributed
to various factors
 A. Inertia
• many people think it is easier to keep things as they
are.
• Wanting to keep things as they exist is often mixed
with believing that things do not need to be changed
or that change being suggested is unwise and will
thus be unproductive in meeting the objectives of
the school.
.
 B. Insecurity
People feel instance about the uncertainty of things to
happen.
• Those who are comfortable with the present are
reluctant to change for a future which they cannot
comprehend or see clearly.
• They prefer to stay with certain known deficiencies
than venture forth to uncertain futures, even if the
changes most likely would be improvements
 C. Rapidity of change

• This refers to the factor which makes people to resist

change by anticipating another change in curriculum
soon.
• Many people feel that if something is implemented
this year, it will most likely be abandoned when
another innovation appears and this will thus make
all their efforts useless.
 D. Lack of knowledge

• Sometimes people resist innovation and its

implementation because they lack knowledge.
• They either do not know about the innovation at all
or they have little information about it.
E. Lack of Support:
• People also resist change if financial or time support
is not given to the effort
 Improving Receptivity to Curriculum
Change

• Curriculum implementation requires face-to-face

interaction or person-to-person contact.
• It is also a group process involving individuals
working together
 The following guidelines help individuals to
increase their receptivity to curriculum innovations.
 A. Curriculum activity must be Cooperative

• If any program is to be implemented and

institutionalized, it should be perceived by all parties
as their program.
• This sense of ownership is achieved by involving
people directly and indirectly with the major aspects
of curriculum development and implementation
 B. Consider as some people do not like
change
• Resistance to any new idea is often natural.
• Curriculum leaders should anticipate it, and should
prepare procedures for dealing with it
C. Innovations are subject to change
• Nothing should be viewed as permanent.
• Change is a constant, and people need to realize that
all programs will be constantly reviewed to
determine if they should be continued
 D. Proper timing

• It is a key increase peoples’ receptivity to an

innovation.
• If the school community is demanding that a new
program to be created to respond to a perceived
national need, then a new program addressing that
need is likely to meet with success and acceptance.
 Part II
General Methods of Teaching Component
Unit Five
The teaching and learning process
Teaching is defined as:-
•An interactive process, primarily involving classroom
talk, which takes place between teacher and pupils
& occurs during certain definable
activities"(Amidon& Hunter: 1967
 Teaching denotes
• An activity or action: You can see teaching taking
place
• A process : It involves a series of actions and
decisions of the teacher
• An interpersonal activity: Interpersonal refers to the
fact that teaching involves interactions between a
teacher and one or more students
• Intentional: There is some purpose or set of
purposes for which teaching occurs. This purpose is
bringing about learning on the part of the learner.
 Characteristics of effective teaching
• Clarity of the teacher’s explanations and directions.
• Establishing a task-oriented classroom climate.
• Making use of a variety of learning activities.
• Encouraging students’ participation and getting all of
them involved.
• Monitoring pupils’ progress and attending quickly to
pupils’ needs.
• Delivering a well-structured and well organized lesson.
• Providing pupils with positive and constructive
feedback.
• Ensuring coverage of the educational objectives.
• Making good use of questioning techniques
 Learning is defined as

1. A persisting change in human performance or

performance potential . . . (brought) about as a result
of the learner’s interaction with the environment
(Driscoll, 1994)
2. The relatively permanent change in a person’s
knowledge or behavior due to experience (Mayer,
1982, p. 1040).
 Characteristics of effective Learning:
• It is meaningful to the students
• Students can use it, connect it to their lives, or
actively participate in it
• It allows students to move further than
memorization of facts and bits of knowledge
• It prepares the students to understand and participate
in a complex world.
• It encourage students to investigate, to understand
the world around them, to analyze, to draw
conclusions & to communicate – in other words, TO
THINK
 Qualities of an effective teacher
• Has excellent subject knowledge or mastery
• Provides work that is challenging for students
• Has smooth relations with students
• Manages the class well
• Plans his/her lessons well
• Adopts a variety of teaching methods and media
• Considers the needs of the different ability groups
within the class
• Makes good use of a variety of questioning techniques
• Is friendly, with a sense of humor
• Gives feedback within an appropriate timescale.
• Is confident, open to suggestions, other viewpoints
 The unique characteristics of teaching
profession

1) It is a unique, definite & essential service: Directly

related to shaping human mind, inculcating
knowledge and changing attitude.
2) It is an intellectual undertaking: A teacher
continually engaged in studying expanding his/her
knowledge
5) It is the most exiting way of learning
3) It referred as Initiating, directing, administering
4) It stimulates one to be creative
 Duties and Responsibilities of Professional Teachers
Duties of Teachers
•

I. Teachers interaction with students

• Shall not deliberately suppress/block up or distort
subject matter relevant to students’ progress as long as it
is relevant.
• Shall make responsible effort to protect the student
from conditions harmful to learning or to health and
safety.
• Shall not intentionally expose the student to
embarrassment or discouragement.
• Shall not treat students on the basis of race, color , sex,
political and religious view, family, social and cultural
backgrounds
 Cont…
• Shall not use professional relationships with
students for private advantage.
• Shall not disclose information about students
obtained in the course of professional service.
• Has to meet individual needs by recognizing the
differences among students.
• Should be an example to his/her students in all
places and all aspects.
• Should show sympathetic and positive attitude
towards his/her students.
 Cont…
II. Teachers interaction with colleagues
• A teacher must work together with other colleagues
so as to share ideas & experience which later result
professional development & raise in educational
quality, solving problems, etc

III. Teachers interaction with parents

• A teacher should respect the basic responsibility of
parents for their children
• A teacher also expected to establish friendly and
collaborate relationship with parents of students.
 Responsibilities of a Teacher

 There are a lot of responsibilities expected from a

teacher. The major ones include:-
A. Planning Learning experiences for students
• Planning is vital, significant & worthwhile experience
for students the prime responsibility of teachers.
• In planning activities, a teacher should be skillful and
imaginative to address different learning styles and
individual needs.
• Planning becomes relevant when the teacher possesses
adequate knowledge of subject mastery, understanding
of instructional methods and better attitude and skill
 Cont….
B. Guiding the learning experience
 In order to guide the learning activities /experiences
of student the teacher has to:-
• Create a stimulating environment for learning.
• Arouse interest & motivation in each student.
• Make students engage in vital learning experiences.
• Supplement lessons with variety instruct regional
rice.
• Evaluate the progress of learners in line with the
objectives stated.
 Cont…
C. Giving guidance and counseling service
• A teacher has to advise students on the accessions of
difficulties.
• Also he/she has to consult students in the classroom
and outside.
D. Diagnosing Learning problems
• Because all students in the class are not active a
teacher has to assess the problem of students who
doesn’t show any more progress in their learning.
Not only diagnosing problems also suggesting
solutions and acting accordingly.
 Cont…
E. Evaluation
• A teacher should check his/ her students’ progress
/achievement by employing continuous assessment.
F. Participating in professional life
• Every teacher is expected to participate in
professional life that contributes for the
improvement and his/her profession
 Teachers Professional Ethics in
Ethiopian Context
• Teachers in Ethiopia are committed to the attainment of
highest standard professional service which is
undertaken in collaboration with colleagues, learners,
parents and community at large.
• Teacher’s professional interactions are governed by four
fundamental principles:
• Autonomy: to treat people with the rights that is to be
honored and defended,
• Justice: to share power and prevent the abuse of power,
• Responsible care: to do well and minimize harm to
others,
• Truth: to be honest with others and self
 Cont…
Teacher’s Professional Codes of Ethics are
principles and rules set considering their
professional interaction with concerned bodies. i.e.
colleagues, learners, parents and community.
I. Commitment to Learners
Teachers will strive for:
• Develop and maintain professional relationships
with learner based up on the best interests of
learners
 Cont…
• Encouraging pupils to formulate & work for
individual goals.
• Avoiding exploiting/misusing professional
relationship with any student.
• Dealing students with justice and considering each
student fairly regardless of their physical, mental,
economical, or religions background.
• Recognizing individual difference and meeting
accordingly.
• Respecting students & their rights, being
sympathizing & developing positive attitude towards
Students.
 Cont…
• Promoting the physical, emotional, social,
intellectual wellbeing of learners.
• Never punish or blame students at the expense of
other students.
• Refrain from commenting students unprofessionally.
• Protect the confidentiality of information about the
learners.
• Being good model for students’ future responsibility
 II. Commitment to Parents

Teachers will strive for:

• Involve them in decision making about the care and
education of their children.
• Establish open, honest and respectful relationships.
• Respect their privacy.
• Respect their right to information about their
children, unless that is judged to be not in the best
interest of the children.
 III. Commitment to Society
Teachers will strive for:
• Actively support policies and programs which
promote equality of opportunity for all,
• Work collegially to develop schools and centers
which model democratic ideas.
• Teach and model those positive values which are
widely accepted in society and encourage learners to
apply them and critically appreciate their
significance
 IV. Commitment to the Profession
Teachers will strive for:
• Advance the interest of the teaching profession
through responsible ethical practice.
• Regard themselves as learners and engage in
continuing professional development.
• Be truthful when making statements about their
qualifications and competencies.
• Contribute to the development and promotion of
sound educational policy.
 Cont…
• Contribute to the development of an open and
reflective professional culture
• Treat colleagues and associates with respect,
working with them co-operatively and collegially to
promote students learning.
• Assist new comers to the profession.
• Respect confidential information on colleagues
unless disclosure is required by the law or serve a
compelling professional purpose.
 Unit Six
Principles, Methods and Techniques of Teaching

• Principles are defined as fundamental norms, rules,

or values that represent what is desirable and
positive for a person, group, organization, or
community and it helps in determining the
rightfulness or wrongfulness of it action,
• Principles are more basic than policy and objectives,
and are meant to govern both
 Major Kinds of Teaching Principles

• There are nine principles of teaching as discussed

below:
1. The principle of uniting instruction with the
political, economic and social policy of the
country:-
 This indicates that instruction must be related with
the life of the learners.
 Cont…

• The curriculum of a country will not be different

from a reflection of the socio-political realities in the
society.
• Hence the teacher has the responsibility to create
the link between the contents of instruction and the
political, economic and social expectations sought to
be developed
 2. The Principle of connecting instruction with
social life

• The main purpose of this principle is preparing

students for productive work.
• This is in other words interested in linking theory
with practice like for instance; extracurricular
(clubs) activities at schools.
3. The Principle of integrating instructions of
different subjects
• The main objectives of school instruction are to enable
the students to use facts of the different subjects
(horizontal relationship) jointly in social life.
• Subject integration leads to students’ unity of thinking,
outlook, skills, attitudes etc.
• the application of the principle requires analysis of the
syllabus in their points of contact with other subjects
(their interrelations) and using the relations to elaborate
basic terms, concepts and ideas of general importance.
• This principle assists students develop a unified view
of the issue under discussion.
4. The Principle of guiding the activities of learners (the
principle of teacher’s leading role and students’
independent work):

• The leading roles of the teacher are planning,

organizing, guiding students, encouraging,
stimulating, facilitating, which are the basic for
successful learning.
• Learners’ self-activity is so important for the
development of initiation, creativity, etc.
• The principle tells us that the learners in our
classrooms are not passive recipient of knowledge.
The application of the principle requires:

• Proper planning, organizing, directing, controlling

and evaluating students’ tasks;
• Conscious guidance of students learning (motives,
attitudes, knowledge, capacity, conviction etc.)
• Initiating and stimulating students’
activities/practice.
• Developing step-by-step students-self activity.
 5. Principle of making instruction comprehensive

• The main educational aim of this principle is to

make the instructional process suitable for student’s
demands, knowledge, capacity, abilities, etc.
• Some of the rules in making instruction
comprehensive are to proceed from concrete to
abstract, from known to the unknown, from easy to
difficult, from nearer to further, etc.
6. The principle of vividness in instruction (the
principle of giving clear ideas in instruction

• Successful learning always depends on the learner’s

clear perception of all important parts of the content.
• Instruction should be clear so that knowledge is
based on sufficiently clear and lively perception and
conception
 7. The principle of understanding individual
difference in instruction
• The teacher should know the cognitive abilities and
physical maturity of students.
• Its application requires considering students’
individual difference
• i.e. ability to perform a certain task or operate a
given machine and applying different approached
to address the difference.
• Remember individuals greatly differ in
comprehending the same thing
 8. The principle of applicability and durability of the results of
instruction (the principle of stabilizing the results of instruction
permanently)

• The quality of instruction is measured by its results

and these results must be applicable and durable.
• Instruction requires planned repetition, summary,
exercise and various applications of knowledge,
abilities and skills.
 9. The principle of shaping instruction
systematically according to the curriculum

• The implementation of this principle requires the

study of the curriculum materials
• i.e the syllabus, textbook, teacher’s guide and
instructional materials, the development of clearly
defined objectives in all levels of planning,
organization of the subject matter in line with the
students ability, maturation interest and background
 Method of teaching: definitions and
classifications
Teaching Method is defined as:
• A systematic order imposed up on teaching activities.
• These teaching activities can be expressed in terms of
the teacher activity and students’ activity in a given
lesson.
• Methods are ways by which the teacher imparts
(conveys) the facts, ideas, concepts, etc. to the learners
to help them acquire the necessary knowledge, develop
skills and values.
• They are how teachers transmit lesson content to
facilitate information to students.
• They are the means by which the teacher attempts to
bring about the desired learning.
 Major Categories of Instructional Methods
• There are two major categories of instructional
methods. These are:-
1. Teacher-Centered Method
• This is a teacher-dominated approach.
• The teacher monitors both their rate of classroom
activity and the pattern of classroom interaction, which
will result in the immediate disappearance of the
knowledge acquired.
• Some educators call this method as the authoritarian
method for one person, the teacher, set the task,
prescribes procedures and judge results without
permitting others to chare in the decision process.
• In other words, free time for independent work is given
no room, as the teacher’s presentation of new
information is a highly monitored and governed session.
 Some characteristics of the teacher-centered
methods
• There is high percentage of academic learning time;
• The teacher engages the students on the task promptly
and keeps them on the activity until its completion;
• The teacher is active in explaining, monitoring and
describing;
• Interaction and socializations among or in between
students is kept to the minimum as the students are
awfully busy with the tasks given by the teacher;
• Mastery learning is highly stressed;
• Use of extrinsic reward-praise, good grade
• Use punishment-usually hard punishment;
• Use of assessment and feedback-terminal or summative
 2. Student Centered Method
• students are active participant in their own learning
instead of passive receivers of information.
• Their previous knowledge and experience are so
crucial and valued since they help to construct new
knowledge.
• And the role of the teacher is creating conducive
environment for learning and offering a guide, stage
settings facilitating, observing and evaluating his/her
students in a more objective way.
• In other words, the teacher as a facilitator and co-
worker is not expected to only give information, but
also to design instructions that would lead students
learning for understanding through debating,
interrogating, discussion, creating exploration, etc.
 Some Characteristics of the Student-
Centered Methods
• Learners are actively engaged in solving problems in
lieu of being receivers of knowledge;
• Teachers produce conducive environment to learn via
facilitation and guidance;
• Prior knowledge and experience of learners is integrated
to the learning process;
• Students learn through the integration of theory and
practice;
• Use of intrinsic reward-students motivates themselves
and which in turn makes to have effective learning;
• Use of some punishment-using reasons rather than
power;
• Use of assessment and feedback any assessment is
formative
 Types of Instructional Methods

1. The Lecture Method

• A face-to face teaching approach where the teacher
explains, elaborates, tells the facts, events, ideas,
etc.
• It refers to one way flow of information (from the
teacher to the student).
• It is a verbal presentation about materials to be
learnt
 Types of lecture methods
1. Formal (Unmodified):
• This is characterized by the lack of discussion or interaction in
between the teacher and the students.
• The teacher lectures continuously for a long time being
uninterrupted.
• This method is not suitable for first and second cycle students.
• Because the students have less retention power and cannot
concentrate for a long time.
2. Informal (Modified):
• Takes into account the participation of students like asking
giving suggestions and answering to questions.
• Here, there is an interruption.
• It is possible to use such an approach in the lower grades
together with other methods.
 Advantages of lecture method
• It is an effective method to introduce new
information, new concepts, principles, procedures in
which students do not have sufficient previous
experience
• Appropriate to teach large class size supported by
audio visual aids and other resources.
• It saves time and economical when there is a need to
present a lot material with in limited time frame.
• Ensures systematic acquisition of knowledge if the
teacher is effective in presenting the lesson
 Cont…
• Provides better scope for clarification and learning
focusing on significant ideas
• Provides flexibility- adjustment techniques can be
easily made in line with students abilities, aptitudes
& interest
• Gives the students training in listening
• Suitable to demonstrate models and clarifying
matters confusing to students
• Develops good audience habits
 Limitations of lecture method
• Very little scope for students activity
• Is mostly one way communication
• Doesn’t consider the concept of individual difference
• Does not guarantee the relative permanency of
learning. i.e. there is high probability of forgetting
• Does not promote learners’ creativity power
• It is against the principle of “ activity learning or
learning by doing”
• Less effective in stimulating students’ interest.
• May become monotonous to the students after a while
Techniques (Guidelines) for the effective
use of the lecture method
• Use lecture method to teach new contents & skills
that are not yet experienced by students.
• Use the blackboard effectively & properly provide
introduction and define new& technical terms.
• Motivate students to ask questions
• Plan activities carefully before class
• Use real objects, models, diagrams, sketches, etc’
verbal illustrations such as example, comparisons,
 Cont…
• Make pauses in your presentation
• Use clear & suitable language- avoid words that are
beyond students age& capacity
• Divide your lesson into sections logically
• Use examples frequently & encourage students to
give their own examples
• Maintain good eye contact and relationship with
students.
• Summarize most important points of your
presentation.
 The Demonstration Method

• It is carried out by showing some natural

phenomena, real objects, models, and processes to
the learner.
• The method combines a verbal explanation with
practical illustrations, handing or operation of
equipment or materials.
• It develops both mental and motor skills of the
learners for it involves observation participation and
practice
 The demonstration method has the
following steps:

• Explanation
• Demonstration
• the students performance
• The instructor’s supervision.
• Evaluation of the demonstration process
 Advantages of the Demonstration Method
The demonstration method has the following advantages.
 It makes learners more likely to believe what they see than what they
hear or read;
 It allows use of real objects or models;
 It makes pacing flexible, the demonstrator can move at a pace desired
by students;
 It makes repetition possible until students learn the skill completely;
 It involves students in the actual activities and makes them learn from
their own practices;
 It motivates students when performed well;
 It links theory and practice, and then fosters creative thinking;
 It makes supervision and prevention of errors possible;
 It gives opportunities to students to make use of the same tools as their
teachers;
 It helps the students to see progresses and fixing facts and principles
 Shortcomings of the Demonstration Method
The demonstration method has the following limitations.
 It requires a considerable time and expense to obtain the necessary
materials;
 Sometimes, it is costly in terms of teachers’ time, rooms, etc.
 Most of the time heavy objects are difficult to transport;
 If small objects are used, there is a strict limitation on the number of
students who can adequately observe the demonstration;
 Usually, a certain pace suits to the teacher and not to individual
students;
 Some activities may not be slowed down
 They may have effects on students and the teacher (E.g. Chopping an
onion)
 Students usually lose attention, if the demonstration is:
 too long;
 too much involved; and
 cover too many materials.
 Therefore, the demonstrations should be short in terms of time and steps, and cover
few materials.
 To make this method effective, the
teacher needs to:
• Determine the right time for demonstration
• Prepare the necessary materials in advance
• Make students clear with the aim of the
demonstration.
• Make sure that the sitting arrangement is in order all
students can see and hear.
• Be certain that the safety rules are observed
• Summarize what she/he has demonstrated.
 The Group Discussion Method

• It is a method that encourages students’ active

participation in exchanging their views.
• It is used for gaining new knowledge, solving
problems, forming attitudes, developing the ability
of arguing interpreting, discussing gaining linguistic
abilities and skills
 Cont…

• There are four methods of grouping students as

listed below:
• Arbitrary  according to lists of names or sitting
arrangements.
• Ability  students having similar abilities sit
together.
• Mixed  deliberately composed group.
• Compatibility  students who like each other or
one another and work well.
 Cont…
• The type of discussion could be in large group or
small group.
• In the case of small group discussion, the students
are divided into small groups and make a brief
discussion of a certain issue.
• It helps to get the view of every student without any
hesitation.
 The possible conditions to use the group
discussion method could be:
1. When students have to analyze a problem and decide on a plan of action;
 Most of the time, group discussions provide opportunities to get better ideas;
make analysis; and devise mechanisms to make sensible decisions.
 A group usually generates better ideas if it discusses freely and genuinely.
2. When the teacher feels that there is the need to expand the total amount of
information obtained in the class by drawing out suggestions/opinions from
students.
 This helps to enrich the information on what is to be discussed whenever the
teacher’s experience is limited.
3. When the teacher wants to make his/her students get an understanding of a
program, a principle or a policy.
 Deep understanding of a program has a positive effect on its implementation.
 Distortions occur when a policy is implemented without having clear
understanding.
4. When the teacher wants to incorporate the discussion method as an essential
part of most other methods;
 Cont…
Thus, the group discussions can be classified as:
a) Pair Group Discussion
b) Buzz Group Discussion
c) Panel Discussion Group
d) Seminar Group Discussion
e) Brain Storming Group Discussion
f) Jigsaw Group Discussion
g) Cross Over Groups Discussion
h) Cooperative Learning
i) Pyramiding Group Discussion
 Major Criteria used for Selecting
Instructional Methods
• Objectives of the lesson;
• Content of the lesson;
• Time of the lesson;
• Availability of instructional media;
• Background of the learners, etc
 Unit Seven
Planning Lessons, Organization and
classroom Management

Instructional Planning
 Some of the definitions of the term plan are:
• A plan is a guide map for action;
• A plan is an experience in anticipatory teaching;
• A plan is a blue print;
• A plan is a direction for future activities, etc.
 Merits of an instructional plan
• Helps ensure subject mastery;
• Enables to select appropriate instructional methods;
• Avoids crisis in the classroom;
• Develops more confidence;
• Enables to use different instructional media;
• Realizes wise usage of time;
• Fixes the direction of teaching-learning process;
• Helps avoid needles repetition;
• Gives substitute teachers a basis for presenting real
lesson;
• Gives outline to follow as one teaches a lesson;
• Enables to anticipate the implementation of activities;
• Assures the attainability of instructional objectives, etc.
 Fundamental Questions of Instructional
Planning
• There are seven fundamental questions of instructional
planning as recommended by Ralph Tyler (1949).
• Why to teach? Understanding the objectives to be achieved
• What to teach? Knowing and mastering the contents to be
taught.
• How to teach? Selection of appropriate methods and media
• Whom to teach? Identifying the grade level and background
of the learners.
• When to teach? Knowing the solid number of working days
and total allotted periods for the subject.
• How much to teach? Checking the harmony among the
contents in the textbook and the total number of periods.
• Where to teach? Understanding the environment such as
climate, location of the school and the reality of the country
 Types of Instructional plan

There are different types of instructional plans as

mentioned below:
• Annual lesson Plan;
• Semester plan;
• Unit plan;
• Course plan;
• Periodic (daily) plan
 Lesson plan
• A lesson plan is specially developed for a single
instructional sequence, usually presented in one
class session.
• This plan is very specific & much detailed, which is
prepared to guide and control one period’s
instruction.
• Elements of lesson plan:-
Instructional objectives: The particular objectives to be
covered during the lesson are described precisely and
operationally.
Content: Refers to what the teacher intends and plans to
teach in a single period.
Methods: Selection of appropriate methods
 Cont…
Materials: The instructional materials are
explained in terms of purpose & way in which
they will be integrated into the lesson
Time estimates: Careful state of time schedule
for each phase of learning sequence should be
provided in the plan; this is helpful in pacing the
instruction.
Evaluation: A framework of questions with which
to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the
lesson is needed. An opportunity for students to
evaluate the lesson may also be include
 Cont…
Practical steps for lesson planning
• Formulating SMART instructional objectives.
• Planning instructional contents.
• Selecting appropriate instructional methods.
• Dividing the instructional process into logical
teaching steps (Introduction, presentation,
stabilization and evaluation )
• Writing teachers and students activities in a
balanced manner.
• Deciding appropriate time for each activity.
• Selecting assessment technique
 Cont…
• Activities Expected of a teacher under each step of
Teaching.
• Introduction-This is the step in which students
ready to learn the new lesson. This activities
include:
• Revising the previous lesson and relating it with the
new one.
• Orienting and motivating about the new topic by
explaining objectives and what they are doing to
learn.
• Arousing students to be alert and active for the
upcoming lesson
 Cont…
• Presentation. This is the step in which the new lesson
is delivered and shared among students.
• It refers to the main body of the lesson.
• Activities expected of a teacher here are:
-using variety of methods
- stating his/her students activity clearly
- giving explanation and illustration to
student
- using instructional aids
- maintaining multi-directional
interaction to students
 Cont…
• Stabilization:- It refers to reinforcing what students
have acquired.
 Techniques of stabilization include:-
– Repetition- repeating or summarizing already acquired
knowledge and skill.
– Systematization- A teacher is expected to present the
main points in a systematic ways.
– Exercising- to make students knowledge, skills and
attitudes automatic
- Application-aims at translating (applying) the
knowledge and skills acquired for problem solving
 Cont…
• Checking and evaluation:- Its aim is to check the
extent to which the stated objectives are achieved or
not/ to examine the progress and weakness of
students in acquiring knowledge, skill and attitude.
• For example: - using oral questions, homework,
quiz, test…etc
 Classroom organization

 One of the vital factors is learning the environment.

 This implies that the teacher has to create homely
atmosphere at his/her classroom.
 For doing so knowledge of the different seating
arrangements is so important
In any discipline, every classroom is a mixed ability
group
 Types of Seating Arrangement

• There are four most popular seating arrangements

that we observe in most classrooms.
1. Row type of seating arrangement: where the
students sit in rows, facing the teacher and the
chalkboard.
• Usually learners are arranged in accordance with
their height where the tallest seat at the back and
the shortest in the front.
• In situations where you have students with short-
sighted, hard or hearing you need to place them in
one of the front seat
 Cont…
 Merits
• This type of seating arrangement seems to be
convenient for formal lecture.
• It helps to have easy movement in between rows and
orderly collection and distribution of materials
Cont…
 Cont…
2. Cluster Pattern of seating arrangement
• This is characterized by the formulation of little
cluster of students in different positions in the class.
• This type of seating arrangement is very convenient
for buzz group discussion
Merits
• Students communicate easily with each other;
• Easier for students to work as a team;
• Movement from one cluster to another is not too
difficult
Cont…
 Cont…

3.The horse shoe pattern of seating arrangement:

A seating arrangement in which students are arranged
in the form of “U” shape.
• In here the teacher sits at the centre.
 Merits
• Used when the lesson requires a lot of discussion
among the students and with the teacher as well;
• Easy for students to consult each other
Cont…
 Cont…

4. The Round table Pattern/ Circular seating

arrangement
• Is also good formation of groups’ discussion lessons
• Unlike the horseshoe, the authority of the teacher is
completely decentralized.
• In sum, although many teachers may not find it too
easy varying their students seating arrangements,
they should try to vary them as much as they can.
Cont…
 Classroom Management

• Broadly speaking CRM refers to the management of

student’s behavior and their social relationships,
lesson content, instructional techniques & the scarce
resources, time & space
• Narrowly speaking, classroom management refers to
the art of administering directing, controlling &
disciplining students’ behavior
 CRM aims at:-

• Promoting an environment (physical& emotional)

conducive to effective teaching and learning.
• Guaranteeing class time to be devoted for learning
effectively
• Securing the support & cooperation of students in
CR activities
• Ensuring the active& meaningful engagement of
students to the learning task at hand etc
 Cont…

• As noted earlier, CRM deals mainly with problems

of discipline or student misbehavior
Student’s Misbehavior
• Student’s misbehavior is any act of a student that
disrupts the normal process of teaching & learning
in the CR
• Or it could be defined as any act of students that
violates the established or implied classroom rules.
 Forms of students Misbehavior
 The following are the major forms
• Minor misbehavior problems of a passing kind
• Repeated minor misbehavior
• Persistent and serious misbehavior

Causes of students’ Misbehavior

A. Teacher related causes
• Poor teaching
• Failure to enforce rules
• Failure to set the right task
 Cont…

B. Student related causes

 Lack of interest in a particular subject
 Dislike of teachers or hostility towards a teacher.
 Attention- seeking
 Ignorance of CR rules
C. School-environment related causes
 Large class sizes
 Conflicting rules
 Leadership Styles

• A teacher and his/her learners communicate

through various styles of classroom leadership.
• And the presence or absence of relationships
between or among the learners and the teacher are
influenced by the teacher’s styles of guidance.
• The following are some of them:-
 1. Authoritarian style
• The teacher who subscribes to this style of
classroom management determines school policy
alone and assigns duties out without question in
prescribed manner.
• Such teachers centralize all powers in themselves
and teaching is completely teacher-centered.
• Students are the followers of the orders of their
teacher and does the teacher impart passive
discussion listeners of the information.
• This type of teaching style has no place for free
discussion and expression on the part of the learners
The students taught by the authoritarian
teachers:

• Lack the capacity for initiation and group action;

• Show no interest in their work in the absence of
their teacher;
• Develop hostility and aggression towards other
follow members.
 2. Laissez-faire style
• The teacher believes that there should not be rules
and regulations since everyone has an “in born sense
of responsibility.
• Such a situation may well exist amongst mature,
experienced teachers.
• This may lead to anarchy, and chaos, which would
hardly be conducive to them provision of quality
education.
• But, as the laissez-faire (literally let-do) style is
opposite to the autocratic style
• In other words, this often considered as unorganized
or ineffective teachers.
 Cont…

• They don’t direct or guide their students’ activities.

• Rather they provide no (or few) goals and directions
for group of individual behaviors leave them free to
do what they like.
 Students taught by these teachers:-
• Feel insecurity;
• Show dissatisfaction against their teachers;
• Are cooperative
 3. Democratic style
• The teacher believes that the staff or students should
be involved in decision making process.
• Decisions are arrived at after consultation with the
staff or and with the students.
• This person allows freedom of thought and action
within the frame work of the mission and objectives
of the school.
• This style is based on the belief that where people
are committed to the services of ideas, which they
helped to frame, they will exercise self-control, self-
direction and be motivated.
The following characteristics are developed in
a democratic classroom

• Friendliness and more cooperative atmosphere.

• High level of efficiency and habit of independent
work.
• Initiative of working effectively in the absence of
their teacher
• Mutual cooperation and recognition.
 Cont…
• These three types of leadership (characteristics)
overlap in the process of classroom instruction,
because teachers could not always show
authoritarian, laissez-faire or democratic behavior in
their teaching.
 Thus, the specific conditions should be considered.
 Maintaining CR discipline
• There are two broad categories of techniques or
approaches to be used in order to maintain
discipline and order in the CR.
• These are preventive and curative techniques
• Before dealing with each one of them separately it
seems wise to describe one useful teaching
technique, which manifests dual faces of
prevention & cure at the same time.
• This technique is known as constant monitoring
of a class by the teacher
 Cont…
• Constant monitoring proved effective for
successful CRM
• Constant monitoring involves keeping the whole
class and its individual members under the
constant observation of the teacher
• The teacher establishes & maintains an eye
contact with each and every students in a class
• This enables the teacher to be well aware of what
is going on in the class
 Cont…

• The preventive effect of this technique is that not

many people dare to create trouble at all, because
they feel that the teacher constantly likes at them.
Also eye contact intensifies communication
between the teacher and the students.
• And the curative effect is that the teacher is able
to easily spot any sort of deviancy or the deviant
him/her self, and quickly take the appropriate
measure.
 1. Preventive techniques
• These are measures taken by the teacher before students
misbehave
• They are essential precautions made by teachers not to
give way for any sort of students misbehavior in the
classroom
• In other words, preventive techniques are designed to
avoid or reduce the causes of misconduct.
• Because one art of preserving discipline is to remove the
causes of indiscipline
• So ultimately prevention techniques may save time by
removing the conditions or causes that give rise to
discipline problems in the first place
• There seems to be a universal agreement that
prevention is better than cure
 Type of preventive techniques
• If the following techniques are well understood and
put to use by teachers, then they will certainly help
to save time & energy that must otherwise be spent
in keeping discipline and order
Establishing & maintaining good interpersonal
relationship
Effective or ‘ good’ teaching
Giving rewards
Sharing responsibilities to students
Cooperative rule making
 Explaining procedures
 Curative Techniques
• Curative techniques are techniques that are taken on the
spot or after the incident happened.
• Ignoring: - if student(s) is/are engaging in minute
misbehavior, it is advisable to ignore (i.e. turning a
blind eye to the problem).
• Eye contact:- seeing with no words - Knowing and
fixed look
• Physical closeness:- proximity/moving in the direction
of offender
• Touch & signal: - touch if the offender is close to you,
but use signals of your body language to manage if she
/he is not close to you.
• Humor :- indirect address of message (jokingly)
 Cont…
• Separating the misbehaving student:- isolation,
bring to front seat
• Out of sight technique:- making the misbehaving
student to leave the class until he/she regains control
• Appeal: - direct command/order/ to the offenders.
For example please keep quiet!!
• Teacher’s analysis:- sharing students’ problems /be
on their side/
• Open discussion:- conduct meeting with the
individual or group of individuals and know about it
with friendly approach.
THANK YOU