LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS

Content

 6.1 Linear Transformations

 6.2 Matrix Transformations

 6.3 Kernel and Range

 6.4 Transformations and Systems of Linear Equations

 6.5 Matrix Representations of Linear Transformations

2
6.1 Linear Transformation
Definitions

 A transformation T of U into V, written T: U → V, is a

rule that assigns to each vector u in U a unique vector v
in V.

 U is called the domain of T, and V is the codomain. We

write T(u) = v; v is called the image of u under T. The
set of all images is called the range of T. The terms

mapping and function are also used for transformation.

4
Definition
 Let U and V be vector spaces. Let u and v be vectors
in U and let c be a scalar. A transformation T : U →
V is said to be linear if
T(u + v) = T(u) + T(v)
T(c u) = c T(u)

U V

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Example 1
Prove that the following transformation T: R2 → R2 is linear.
T(x, y) = (x – y, 3x)
Solution
 Let (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) be vectors in R2.
 T((x1, y1) + (x2, y2)) = T(x1 + x2, y1 + y2) (vector addition)
= (x1 + x2 – y1 – y2, 3x1 + 3x2) (definition of T)
= (x1 – y1, 3x1) + (x2– y2, 3x2) (vector addition)
= T(x1, y1) + T(x2, y2) (definition of T)
Thus T preserves vector addition.

 T(c(x1, y1)) = T(cx1, cy1) = (cx1 – cy1, 3cx1) = c(x1 – y1, 3x1)
= cT(x1, y1)
Thus T preserves scalar multiplication.
 T is linear.

6
Example 2
Show that the following transformation T: R3 → R2 is not linear.
T(x, y, z) = (xy, z)
Solution
Let (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2 , z2) be vectors in R3.
T((x1, y1, z1) + (x2, y2 , z2)) = T(x1 + x2, y1 + y2, z1 + z2)
= ((x1 + x2 )( y1 + y2), z1 + z2)
= (x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x1 y2 + x2 y1, z1 + z2)
and
T(x1, y1, z1) + T(x2, y2 , z2)) = (x1y1, z1) + (x2 y2 , z2)
= (x1 y1 + x2 y2, z1 + z2)
Thus, in general
T((x1, y1, z1) + (x2, y2 , z2))  T(x1, y1, z1) + T(x2, y2 , z2))
Since vector addition is not preserved, T is not linear.

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Theorem 6.1.1
Let A be an m  n matrix. Let x be a vector in Rn, interpreted as a
column matrix. The transformation T: Rn → Rm, defined by T(x) = Ax, is
linear. Such a linear transformation is called a matrix transformation.

Proof
Let x and y be vectors in Rn, written as column matrices, and c be a
scalar.
T (x  y )  A(x  y )
 Ax  Ay
 T ( x)  T ( y ) Addition is preserved.
T (cx)  A(cx)
 cAx Scalar multiplication is
 cT (x) preserved.
Thus the transformation is linear.

8
 Example 5
Consider the linear transformation T defined by the following 3  2
matrix A. Find the image of an arbitrary vector under T, and use this
result to determine the image of the given vector x.
 1  1
A  0 2  x   5
 1
 1 3
Solution
Since A is a 3  2 matrix, it defines a linear transformation T: R2→R3.
We get  1  1  x  y
 
T      0 2      2 y 
x x
  y    1 3  y   x  3 y 
 
Letting x = 5, y = –1 we get
 6
  5   
T
     2
     2
1
 

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Example 5

R2 R3
 x  x y 
  2y 
 y   x 3 y 
 
5 6
1    2 
  2
T→

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Composition of Transformations

U V W

The composite transformation T = T2 ∘ T1 and T2∘T1 (x) = T2(T1(x)).

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Example 6

Find the T2 ∘ T1 of the transformations T1(x, y) = (3x, x + y)

and T2(x, y) = (2x, –y). Determine the image of (2, –3).

Solution
We get

T2  T1 ( x, y )  T2 (T1 ( x, y ))  T2 (3 x, x  y )  (6 x,  x  y )

The image of (2,  3) is T2  T1 (2,  3)  (12, 1).

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Theorem 6.1.2
The composite of two linear transformation is itself a linear
transformation.

Proof
Let U, V and W be vector spaces and T1: U → V, T2: V → W be linear
transformations. Let u and v be vectors in U and c be a scalar. We use
the linearity of T1 and T2 to get

T2  T1 (u  v )  T2 (T1 (u  v ))  T2 (T1 (u)  T1 ( v ))

 T2 (T1 (u))  T2 (T1 ( v ))  T2  T1 (u)  T2  T1 ( v )
T2  T1 (cu)  T2 (T1 (cu))  T2 (cT1 (u))  cT2 (T1 (u))  cT2  T1 (u)

Thus T2 ∘ T1 is linear.

If T1 (x)  A1x and T2 (x)  A2 x, then T2 T1 (x)  A2 A1x

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Non-commutative Composition
Scale then Translate: p' = T(S(p)) = (T○S)(p)
(5,3)
Scale(2,2) (2,2) Translate(3,1)
(1,1) (3,1)
(0,0) (0,0)

Translate then Scale: p' = S(T(p)) = (S○T)(p)

(8,4)
Translate(3,1) (4,2) Scale(2,2)
(1,1) (6,2)
(3,1)
(0,0)

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Example 7
Let T1(x) = A1x and T2(x) = A2x be defined by the following
matrices A1 and A2. Let T = T2 ○T1. Find the image of the vector
x under T. 1 
A1   3 0  1 A2   1  2  x   4
4 2 0 4 0
2
Solution

T is defined by the product matrix A2A1. We get

A2 A1   1  2  3 0  1   5  4  1
4 0 4 2 0  12 0  4
Thus  1  23
T (x)    5  4  1  4   
 12 0  4 2  4
 

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6.2 Matrix Transformation
Matrix Representation
Let T: Rn → Rm be a linear transformation. Consider the
standard basis S = {e1, e2, …, en} for Rn as the set of column
matrices. Then for any vector v in Rn can be uniquely
written as
v = v1e1 + v2e2 + … + vnen.
Since T is linear,
T(v) = T(v1 e1 + … + vn en ) = v1 T(e1) + … + vn T(en)
= [ T(e1) … T(en) ] [v1 … vn] t
The linear transformation T is then defined by the matrix
A = [ T(e1) … T(en) ]
A is called the standard matrix of T.
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Example 1
2x  y
Determine the standard matrix of T      
x
.
  
  y   3 y  
Solution
We find the effect of T on the standard basis.
 1   2  0  1 
T
    0 , T  1    3
   
0    
These matrices are the columns of the standard matrix A.

A  2 1
0 3
Hence T can be written as a matrix transformation:
 x 
T      2 1  
x
  y   0 3  y 
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6.3 Kernel and Range
Theorem 6.3.1
Let T: U → V be a linear transformation. Let 0V and 0U be
the zero vectors of U and V. Then
T(0U) = 0V
That is, a linear transformation maps a zero vector into
zero vector.

Proof
Let u be a vector in U and let T(u) = v.
Let 0 be the zero scalar. Since 0u = 0U and 0v = 0V and T is
linear, we get
T(0U) = T(0u) = 0T(u) = 0v = 0V

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Definition
Let T: U → V be a linear transformation.
The set of vectors in U that are mapped into the zero
vector of V is called the kernel of T. The kernel is denoted
ker(T).
The set of vectors in V that are the images of vectors in U is
called image (range) of T. The image is denoted im(T).

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Theorem 6.3.2

Let T: U → V be a linear transformation.

(a) The kernel of T is a subspace of U.
(b) The image of T is a subspace of V.

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Example 1
Find the kernel and image of the linear operator
T(x, y, z) = (x, y, 0)
Solution
Kernel: ker(T) is the subset that is mapped into (0, 0, 0).
T(x, y, z) = (x, y, 0)
= (0, 0, 0), if x = 0, y = 0
Thus ker(T) is the set of all vectors of the form (0, 0, z). We write
this as
ker(T) = {(0, 0, z)}
Geometrically, ker(T) is the set of all vectors that lie on the z axis.
Image: The image of T is the set of all vectors of the form (x, y, 0).
im(T) = {(x, y, 0)}
Geometrically, im(T) is the set of all vectors that lie in the xy-
plane.

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Example 1

Projection T(x, y, z) = (x, y, 0)

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Theorem 6.3.3

The image of T: Rn → Rm, defined by T(u) = Au, is spanned

by the column vectors of A.
Proof
Let v be a vector in the image. There exist a vector u such
that T(u) = v. Express u in terms of the standard basis of Rn.
u = a1e1 + … + anen
Thus
v = T(a1e1 + … + anen) = a1T(e1) + … + anT(en)
Therefore, the column vectors of A, namely, T(e1), …, T(en),
span the image of A.

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Example 2
Determine the kernel and the image of the transformation
defined by the following matrix.
 1 2 3
A  0  1 1
Solution  1 1 4
 
A is a 3  3 matrix. Thus A defines a linear operator T: R3→R3
with
T(x) = A(x).
Kernel:
 1 2 3  x1  0 x1  2 x2  3 x3  0 x1  5r
0  1 1  x2   0   x2  x3  0  x2  r
 1 1 4   x  0  x1  x2  4 x3  0 x3  r
  3   
The kernel is the set of vectors of the form (-5r, r, r).
ker(T) = {(-5r, r, r)}
Thus ker(T) is a one-dimensional subspace of R3 with basis (-5, 1, 1).
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 Example 2
Range: The image is spanned by the column vectors of A.

1 0 1  1 0 1  1 0 1 1 0 1 
2  1 1   0  1  1  0 1 1  0 1 1 
3 1 4 0 1 1  0 1 1 0 0 0
       

The vectors (1, 0, 1) and (0, 1, 1) span the image of T. An arbitrary

vector in the image will be a linear combination of these vectors.
s(1, 0, 1) + t(0, 1, 1)
Thus the image of T is
im(T) = {(s, t, s + t)}
Thus im(T) is a two-dimensional subspace of R3 with basis {(1,0,1),
(0,1,1)}.

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Theorem 6.3.4
Let T: U → V be a linear transformation. Then
dim ker(T) + dim im(T) = dim domain(T)
Example 3
Find the dimensions of the kernel and image of the linear
transformation T defined by the matrix
1 0 3

 
A  0 1 5
 

Solution 0 0 0
Observe that A is in row echelon form. The nonzero row vectors
are linearly independent. Thus rank(A) = 2, implying that
dim im(T) = 2.
The domain of T is R3; dim domain(T) = 3.
Therefore, dim ker(T) = 1.

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6.4 Transformations and Systems
of Linear Equations
Relationships

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Theorem 6.4.1

The set of solutions to a homogeneous system of m linear

equations in n variables, Ax = 0, is a subspace of Rn.

Proof
Let T be the linear transformation of Rn into Rm defined by
A.
The set of solutions is the set of vectors in Rn that are
mapped by T into the zero vector.
The set of solutions is the kernel of the transformation and
is thus a subspace.
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Example 1
Solve the following homogeneous system of linear equations.
Interpret the set of solutions as a subspace. Sketch the subspace
of solutions.
x1  2 x2  3 x3  0
 x2  x3  0
Solution x1  x2  4 x3  0
Using Gauss-Jordan elimination we get
1 2 3 0  1 2 3 0  1 2 3 0  1 0 5 0
       
0 1 1 0  0 1 1 0  0 1 1 0  0 1 1 0
       
 1 1 4 0  0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
Thus x1  5r
x1  5x3  0 x1  5x3
  x2  r
x 2  x3  0 x 2  x3
x2  r

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Example 1
The solutions are vectors of the
form
( –5r, r, r)
These vectors form a one-
dimensional subspace of R3,
with basis ( –5, 1, 1). This
subspace is the kernel of the
transformation defined by the
matrix of coefficients of the
system
1 2 3
 
0 1 1 .
 
 1 1 4 

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Theorem 6.4.2
Let Ax = y be a nonhomogeneous system of m linear
equations in n variables. Let x1 be a particular solution.
Every other solution can be written in the form x = z + x1,
where z is a vector in the kernel of the transformation T
defined by A.

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Proof Theorem 6.4.2

Let x1 be a solution. Then Ax1 = y. Let x be an arbitrary

solution. Thus Ax = y. Equating Ax1 and Ax, we get
Ax1 = Ax  Ax – Ax1 = 0  A(x – x1) = 0  T(x – x1) = 0
Thus x – x1 is in the kernel of T; call it z. That is,
x – x1 = z.

We can write
x = x1 + z

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Example 2
Solve the following system of linear equations. Sketch the set of
solutions. x1  2x2  3x3  11
 x 2  x3   2
x1  x2  4x3  9
Solution
Using Gauss-Jordan elimination, we get
1 2 3 11  1 2 3 11  1 2 3 11  1 0 5 7
       
0 1 1 2    0 1 1 2    0 1 1 2  0 1 1 2
       
 1 1 4 9   0 1 1 2   0 1 1 2  0 0 0 0
Thus x1  5r  7
x1  5x3  7 x1  5x3  7
  x2  r  2
x 2  x3  2 x 2  x3  2
x2  r
The solutions are vectors of the form

36
Example 2
( –5r + 7, r + 2, r) = r(–5, 1, 1) + (7, 2, 0)
arbitrary solution element of kernel a particular solution
to Ax = y to Ax = y

The set of solutions can be

represented geometrically by
sliding the kernel, namely the
line defined by the vector ( –5,
1, 1), in the direction and
distance defined by the
vector (7, 2, 0).

37
Many Systems

Consider a number of linear systems, Ax = y1, Ax = y2, Ax =

y3, …, all having the same matrix of coefficients A. Let T be
the linear transformation defined by A. Let x1, x2, x3, …, be
particular solutions to these systems. Then the sets of
solutions to these systems are
ker(T) + x1, ker(T) + x2, ker(T) + x3
These sets are “parallel” sets, each being the ker(T)
translated by the amounts x1, x2, x3.

38
Example 3
Analyze the solutions to the following system of equations.
x1  2 x2  3 x3  x4  1
2 x1  3 x2  2 x3  x4  4
3 x1  5 x2  5 x3 5
x1  x2  x3  2 x4  3
Solution Solve using Gauss-Jordan elimination.
1 2 3 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 0 5 5 5
     
2 3 2 1 4 0 1 4 3 2 0 1 4 3 2 
   
3 5 5 0 5  0 1 4 3 2 0 0 0 0 0
     
 1 1 1 2 3 0 1 4 3 2 0 0 0 0 0
We get x1  5 x3  5 x4  5
x2  4 x3  3 x4  2
Express the leading variables in terms of the free variables.
x1  5 x3  5 x4  5 x2  4 x3  3 x4  2

39
Example 3
The arbitrary solution is
(5r  5s  5, 4r  3s  2, r , s )
Separate the parts of this vector as follows.

(5r  5s  5, 4r  3s  2, r , s )
Arbitrary solution to Ax = y
 r (5, 4, 1, 0)  s (5, 3, 0, 1)  (5, 2, 0, 0)
kernel of mapping a particular solution
defined by A to Ax = y

Observe that the kernel is a two-dimensional subspace of R4

with basis (5, 4, 1, 0), (5, 3, 0, 1). It is a plane through the origin.
The set of solutions to the given system is this plane translated
in a manner described by the vector (5, 2, 0, 0).

40
6.5 Matrix Representations of
Linear Transformations
Theorem 6.5.1

Let T: U → V be a linear transformation. Let {u1, …, un} be

a basis for U. T is defined by its effect on the base vectors,
namely by T(u1), …, T(un). The image of T is spanned by
{T(u1), …, T(un)}.

Thus, defining a linear transformation in a basis defines it

on the whole domain.

42
Example 1
Consider the linear transformation T: R3 → R2 defined as
following basis vectors of R3. Find T(1, -2, 3).
T(1, 0, 0) = (3, -1), T(0, 1, 0) = (2, 1), T(0, 0, 1) = (3, 0)

Solution
Since T is defined on basis vectors for R3, it is defined on the
whole space.
To find T(1, -2, 3), express the vector (1, -2, 3) as a linear
combination of the basis vectors and use the linearity of T.
T(1, -2, 3) = T(1(1, 0, 0) – 2(0, 1, 0) + 3(0, 0, 1))
= 1T(1, 0, 0) – 2T(0, 1, 0) + 3T(0, 0, 1))
= 1(3, -1) – 2(2, 1) + 3(3, 0) = (8, –3)

43
Theorem 6.5.2
Let U and V be vector spaces with bases B = {u1, …, un} and
B’ = {v1, …, vm}, respectively, and T: U → V a linear
transformation. If u is a vector in U with image T(u)
having coordinate matrices [u]B and [T(u)]B’, then
T  u   B ' = A  u B
where
A   T  u1   B ' T  u n   B '  T
u  T u 
The matrix A thus defines a
transformation of coordinate vectors of U
in the “same way” as T transforms the u B  T  u   B '
vectors of U. A is called the matrix A
representation of T (or matrix of T) with
respect to the bases B and B’.
44
Example 2
Let T: U → V be a linear transformation. T is defined relative to
bases B = {u1, u2, u3} and B’ = {v1, v2} of U and V as follows.
T(u1) = 2v1 – v2
T(u2) = 3v1 + 2v2
T(u3) = v1 – 4v2
Find the matrix representation of T with respect to these bases
and use this matrix to determine the image of the vector
u = 3u1 + 2u2 – u3.
Solution The coordinate matrices of T(u1), T(u2), and T(u3) are
 2  3  1
   
, , and  
 1  2   4 
These vectors make up the columns of the matrix of T.
 2 3 1
A 
 1 2 4 

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Example 2

Let us find the image of the vector u = 3u1 + 2u2 – u3 using this matrix.
The coordinate matrix of u is
 3
 
 2 .
 
 1

 3
We get  2 3 1   11
A  u B    2    .
  1 2 4     5
 1

11
T(u) has coordinate vector   . Thus T(u) = 11v1 + 5v2.
 5

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Example 3
Let T: R3 → R2 be the linear transformation defined by T(x, y, z) = (x
+ y, 2z). Find the matrix of T with respect to the bases {u1, u2, u3}
and {u’1, u’2} for R3 and R2, where
u1 = (1, 1, 0), u2 = (0, 1, 4), u3 = (1, 2, 3) and u’1 = (1, 0), u’2 = (0, 2)
Use this matrix to find the image of the vector u = (2, 3, 5).

Solution We find the effect of T on the basis vectors of R3.

T(u1) = T(1, 1, 0) = (2, 0) = 2(1, 0) + 0(0, 2) = 2u’1 + 0u’2
T(u2) =T(0, 1, 4) = (1, 8) = 1(1, 0) + 4(0, 2) = 1u’1 + 4u’2
T(u3) =T(1, 2, 3) = (3, 6) = 3(1, 0) + 3(0, 2) = 3u’1 + 3u’2
2 1   3
The coordinate vectors of T(u1), T(u2), and T(u3) are thus  ,  , and  
0 4  3

These vectors form the  2 1 3

A 
columns of the matrix of T:
 0 4 3 
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Example 3
Let us now use A to find the images of the vectors u = (2, 3, 5).
We determine the coordinate vector of u. It can be shown that
u = (2, 3, 5) = 3(1, 1, 0) + (0, 1, 4) – (1, 2, 3)
= 3u1 + 2u2 + (– 1)u3
 3
 
The coordinate matrix of u is thus  2 .
 
The coordinate matrix
of T(u) is  3  1

 2 1 3    5 
   2   
 0 4 3    5 
 1
Therefore, T(u) = 5u’1 + 5u’2 = 5(1, 0) + 5(0, 2) = (5, 10).
We can check this result directly using the definition T(x, y, z) = (x
+ y, 2z). For u = (2, 3, 5), this gives
T(u) = T(2, 3, 5) = (2 + 3, 2  5) = (5, 10)

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