MILK HYGIENE

Henroy P. Scarlett, DrPH, MPH, BHSc.

(Hons.), REHS/RS
Lecturer
Department of Community Health &
Psychiatry
UWI, Mona

April 18, 2016

 Global Milk Production
Dairy animals Percentage
Cattle 83.0
Buffalo 13.0
Goat 2.0
Sheep 1.0
Camel 0.3
Other (yaks, horses, reindeers, 0.7
donkeys) FAO, 2015: http
://www.fao.org/agriculture/dairy-gateway/milk-production/dairy-animals/en/#.
Total VknzIXarTIU
100.0
 Key elements that determine the
dairy species kept
 Feed
 Water
 Climate
 Market demand
 Dietary traditions
 Socio-economic characteristics of individual

families
 Goat's milk: A highly recommended alternative
published: Sunday | April 30, 2006

THE DEBATE rages on the local media concerning the merits and
demerits of drinking milk in general but, more specifically, cow's milk.
And, as usual, those against milk drinking have had the upper hand in
the exchanges.
But, even as Gleaner (and radio) health commentator, Dr. Anthony
Vendryes, warned of what he called "udder danger" and his 10 things
wrong with cow's milk, Jamaicans are consuming the frothy golden
goodness at a per capita consumption rate of 156 millilitres per day. The
World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that each person
consume 200 millilitres each day. Jamaica Gleaner, 2006
The Bible endorses the drinking of
goat's milk when it says in Proverbs
27:27.
"You shall have enough goat's milk
for your food, for the food of your
household, and the nourishment of
your maidservants."
 Benefits of Goat Milk
 Goat's milk is less allergenic
 Goat's milk does not suppress the immune
system
 Goat's milk is easier to digest than cow's milk
 Goat's milk has more acid buffering capacity than
over-the- counter antacids, soy infant formula
and cow's milk
 Goat's milk alkalinizes the digestive system
 Goat's milk contains twice the healthful medium-
chain fatty acids, such as capric and caprylic
acids, which are highly antimicrobial
 World Milk Production
 World cow's milk production in 2011 stood at
nearly 606 million tonnes, with the top ten
producing countries accounting for 56.6% of
production.
 The USA was the largest cow's milk producer

in the world in 2011 accounting for 14.7% of

world production
 India is the second largest cow's milk

producer, accounting for 8.7% of world

production
 World Top 10 Cow's Milk Producing Countries in 2011 (Tonnes)
2009 2010 2011
United States of
85,880,500 87,474,400 89,015,200
America

India 47,825,000 49,960,000 52,500,000

China 35,509,831 36,036,043 36,928,901

Brazil 30,007,800 30,715,500 32,091,000

Russian Federation 32,325,800 31,585,200 31,385,700

Germany 29,198,700 29,593,900 30,301,400

France 22,653,100 23,374,300 24,426,500

New Zealand 15,667,400 17,010,500 17,893,800

United Kingdom 13,236,500 14,081,000 14,246,000

Turkey 11,583,300 12,418,500 13,802,400

World 586,239,893 596,560,884 605,644,740

Source: FAO
 Top 10 exporting countries of
Dairy Products, 2009 (FAO)
Country Dairy Export (Milk equivalent) ‘000 tonnes %
European Union 58 190 60.3
New Zealand 14 235 14.7
United States 5 496 5.7
Australia 4 180 4.3
Argentina 1 835 1.9
Saudi Arabia 1 237 1.3
Switzerland 1 009 1.0
Uruguay 919 0.9
Ukraine 704 0.7
Singapore 594 0.6
WORLD 96 514 100.0
 Milk Production in Jamaica
 Peaked at 38.8 million litres in 1992

 Fell to18.4 million litres in 2003

 Fell to 12.3 million litres in 2013

French et al, 2003 – Jamaica Dairy Development Board;

Ministry Paper 54 /2014 Jamaica Dairy Development Board
.

Jamaica Gleaner, March 7, 2008

 Milk Production in Jamaica 2001-2011
35,000

30,000
Milk Production (Tons)

25,000

20,000

15,000

10,000

5,000

0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Years

Source: FAO
 Ministry Paper 54 /2014
Jamaica Dairy Development Board

 Production has varied between 12 and 13 million litres

since 2010, with production in 2013 at 12.34 million litres.
 Per capita consumption of milk remains at 105 ml/day.

 This is one-third of the average for Latin America and the

Caribbean; one-fifth of the average for developed
countries; slightly less than the average of other developing
countries; and half of the WHO minimum requirement.

 The industry has seen declines in the dairy herd population

by some 33 percent since 2004 to a current figure of
12,400 heads.
 Challenges for milk industry in
Jamaica
 Market distorted by subsidies in countries of origin for
imported dairy products despite GATT and WTO rulings
 Importation of milk solids continue to put

pressure on locally produced milk

 Milk price not competitive
 High energy costs
 High incidence of cattle larceny
 Low levels of technological adaptation
 Over-reliance on imported inputs that are becoming

increasingly expensive.
 Declining number of cattle (12,400 in 2014)
 Typical analyses of milks used for
human food (%)

Animal Total Fat Crude Casein Lactose Ash

type solids Protein

Cow 12.60 3.80 3.35 2.78 4.75 0.70

Goat 13.18 4.24 3.70 2.80 4.51 0.78
Sheep 17.00 5.30 6.30 4.60 4.60 0.80
 Definition of milk
 The whole fresh lacteal secretion obtained
from the complete milking of one or more
healthy cows, excluding that which is
obtained within 15 days before or 5 days
after calving
 Legal definition
 “Milk includes cream, ice cream, butter,
cheese, powdered milk, manufactured for
human consumption and intended for sale
or distribution to the public.”
(Source: Public Health Act, Jamaica)

 NB. Milk is the most regulated of all food

commodities especially fat and total
solids and, pricing in earlier years.
(Source: Food & Drugs Act, Jamaica)
 Colostrum
 The thick, creamy, yellow secretion collected
from the udder after calving. It contains
immunoglobulin which are essential for the
protection of calves against septicemia
 Other definitions
 Solids-not-fat: These include the protein
(casein), milk sugar (lactose), and minerals
(ash) – Skimmed milk

 Cream: The liquid milk product high in fat

separated from milk which may be adjusted
by adding concentrated skimmed milk of
non-fat dried milk. It contains not less than
18% milk fat
 Other definitions
 Curds: The coagulated part of milk used in
cheese making

 Total solids: Includes all solid in milk –

proteins, lactose, ash and fats

 Whey: The watery part of the milk that

separates from the curd
Approximate composition of cow’s
milk
Constituents Percentage
Water 87.1
Butter fat 3.9
Protein 3.3
Lactose (milk sugar) 5.0
Ash (minerals) 0.7___
100.0

Solids-not-fat 9.0
Total solids 12.9
https://www.sciencenews.org/sites/default/files/images/milk_piecharts.png
 Milk Standards for Jamaica
 Solids-not-fat (SNF) – 8.25%

 Fat – 3.25%
 Melamine
.
Casein
 Melamine
 An organic base chemical most commonly found in
the form of white crystals rich in nitrogen
 Widely used in plastics, adhesives, countertops,
dishware, whiteboards
 In China, where adulteration has occurred, water
has been added to raw milk to increase its volume.
As a result of this dilution the milk has a lower
protein concentration.
 Companies using the milk for further production
(e.g. of powdered infant formula) normally check
the protein level through a test measuring nitrogen
content. The addition of melamine increases the
nitrogen content of the milk and therefore its
apparent protein content.
 Melamine
 Addition of melamine into food is not
approved by the FAO/WHO Codex
Alimentarius (food standard commission), or
by any national authorities.
 In 2007, melamine was found in wheat gluten

and rice protein concentrate exported from

China and used in the manufacture of pet
food in the United States. This caused the
death of a large number of dogs and cats due
to kidney failure
 Melamine
 In the present event, melamine contamination
has been found in a number of different
brands of powdered infant formula, in one
brand of a frozen yogurt dessert and in
one brand of canned coffee drink.
 All these products were most probably

manufactured using ingredients made from

melamine-contaminated milk.
 Health Effects of Melamine in
Humans
 While there are no direct human studies on the
effect of melamine data from animal studies can be
used to predict adverse health effects.
 Melamine alone causes bladder stones in animal
tests. When combined with cyanuric acid, which may
also be present in melamine powder, melamine can
form crystals that can give rise to kidney stones.
 These small crystals can also block the small tubes
in the kidney potentially stopping the production of
urine, causing kidney failure and, in some cases,
death. Melamine has also been shown to have
carcinogenic effects in animals in certain
circumstances, but there is insufficient evidence to
make a judgment on carcinogenic risk in humans.
Signs and Symptoms of Melamine
Poisoning
 Irritability,
 blood in urine,
 little or no urine,
 signs of kidney infection,
 high blood pressure
Treatment of Melamine Poisoning
 Patients may receive various types of
treatment, depending on the severity of the
kidney effects.
 Treatment may include infusion of fluids and

urine alkalinisation, correction of electrolyte

and acid-base disturbance, haemodialysis or
peritoneal dialysis, or surgical removal of
kidney stones.
 Factors influencing milk
composition
 Breed of cow (Holstein, Guernsey & Jerseys)
 Time of milking
 Age of the animal
 Stage of lactation
 Season of the year
 Type of feed
 Period of time between milking
 Physiological conditions (eg being calm or
excited, receiving medication, etc)
 Good quality raw milk

Must be:
 Free from debris and sediment.
 Free from off- flavours.
 Low in bacterial numbers.
 Normal composition and acidity.
 Free of antibiotics and chemical residues.
 Graded milk standards
Type of milk Grade # organisms/cc
Raw Certified < 10,000
Raw A < 50,000
Raw B < 200,000
Raw C < 1,000,000
Pasteurized A < 30,000
Pasteurized B < 50,000
Sources of microorganisms in milk
 Cows
 Milker
 Water supply
 Milking utensils
 Environment
 What’s mastitis ?
 Inflammation of one or more quarters of the
udder

Normal Inflamed
Mammae = breast

-itis = Latin suffix for

inflammation Swelling
pain
warm
redness
Bhushan Jayarao MVSc, PhD, MPH
 What are the health
concerns of mastitis ?

 Animal health
◦ Loss of functional quarter
◦ Lowered milk production
◦ Death of cow

 Human health
◦ Poor quality milk
◦ antibiotic residues in milk

Bhushan Jayarao MVSc, PhD, MPH

What causes mastitis ?
 Bacteria ( ~ 70%)
 Yeasts and molds ( ~

2%)
 Unknown ( ~ 28%)

◦ physical
 trauma
 weather extremes

Bhushan Jayarao MVSc, PhD, MPH

Where do these organisms
come from ?

 Infected udder
 Environment

◦ bedding
◦ soil
◦ water
◦ manure
 Replacement
animals

Bhushan Jayarao MVSc, PhD, MPH

http://www.eadgene.info/Portals/0/EADGENE_results_pages/mastitis%20cows.JPG
Mastitis
 California
Mastitis
Test
1 2

4 5

http://www.infovets.com/demo/demo/dairy/d100.htm
http://ansci.illinois.edu/static/ansc438/Mastitis/milking_processy.jpg
 Rotary Milking Parlour

http://rotabot.eu/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/rotary.jpg
 Rotating milking parlour
 In a rotary parlour the cow stands on a
circular raised platform, allowing the farmer
to attach the milking machine from below.
 The platform rotates very slowly, allowing

cows to enter and exit the platform at regular

intervals.
 Milking in a rotary parlour can be quicker

than in herringbone parlours, especially for

large farms with big herds.
 Sanitary production of milk
 Clean healthy cows
 Small topped milk pails
 Sterile utensils
 Prompt and efficient cooling
 Clean, healthy workers
 Clean environment
 Public Health Significance
 Zoonotic diseases:
 Bovine tuberculosis
 Q fever
 Brucellosis
 Other infections
 Food safety issues
 Pathogenic microorganisms
 Mycotoxins
 Naturally occurring allergens
 Chemical residues
 Drug residues (antibiotics)
 Hormones
 Pathogenic Microorganisms
 Staphylococcus aureus
 Streptococcus pyogenes
 Salmonella species
 Clostridium perfringens
 Campylobacter jejuni
 E coli 0157:H7
 Shigella species
 Listeria monocytogenes
 Yersinia enterocolitica
 Mycotoxins
 Poisonous compounds produced by molds
 Main molds – Aspergillus, Fusarium,

Penicillium
 Main myctoxin – aflatoxin
 Aflatoxin – lactating cows eating

contaminated feedstuff
http://cdn.slidesharecdn.com/ss_thumbnails/aflatoxin-131128113900-phpapp02-thumbnail-4.jpg?cb=1385711024
Impact of Mycotoxins in Dairy
Cattle

http://www.engormix.com/images/e_articles/1114_01.gif
Naturally occurring allergens
 Common allergenic foods:
 Milk
 Eggs
 Tree roots
 Wheat
 Legumes
 Shellfish
 Crustacea
 Fish
 Symptoms of food allergy
 Gastro-intestinal
 Cutaneous
 Respiratory
 Other
 Milk Allergy

http://www.foodallergyliving.net/wp-content/uploads/RJbefore.JPG
 Chemical residues
 Insecticides
 Herbicides
 Fungicides
 Fertilizers
 Nematicides
 Fumigants
 Bactericides
http://www.arrowscientific.com.au/images/stories/Milk%20contamination.jpeg
 Antibiotic residues
 Certain medications can be carried over into
milk of lactating cows or deposited in tissue
 Penicillin – cause allergic reaction in

susceptible individuals
 Symptoms include itching, nausea, abdominal

pain, vomiting, chest pain, edema, respiratory

distress and shock
Preventing Drug Residues In Milk and Cull Dairy Cows
G. M. Jones, Professor of Dairy Science and Extension Dairy Scientist, Milk Quality & Milking Management, Virginia Tech.
 Hormones
 Stimulate lactation, ovulation and growth
 Controversy continues on whether to give

hormones to food animals to increase milk

production or meat for human consumption
 Classical example is diethylstilbestrol (DES)

 Synthetic hormone first prepared in the

1930s to treat threatened abortions in

humans
 Approved as growth promotant in cattle and

sheep and then banned in the 1970s

 Hormones
 Diethylstilbestrol (DES) is a synthetic form of
the female hormone estrogen.
 Prescribed to pregnant women between 1940
and 1971 to prevent miscarriage, premature
labor, and related complications of pregnancy
 Various hormone preparations are approved

for animal use

 Estradiol, oxytocin, progesterone, FSH, LH
http://www.statesofmind.ca/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/milk-hormones.jpg
 Production of HYGIENIC
MILK

 The milkers’ hands and clothes are clean and

he/she is in good health.
 The cow’s udder and teats are cleaned
 The milking machine and milk storage
equipment are kept clean and are in good
condition
 Immediately after milking, the milk must be
cooled preferably to 4° C.
 Sanitation of milk cans.
Immediately cans are emptied of milk they
should be cleaned as follows:
 Cold water rinse.
 Scrubbing with brush and warm detergent (any
unperfumed liquid soap will do).
 Cold water rinse.
 Sterilization (sanitization) with boiling water or
steam if available or use dairy sanitizing (e.g.
hypochlorite) or commercial brand preparations in
accordance with manufacturer’s instructions.
 Dry cans on a drying rack. Exposure to sunlight will
enhance killing of bacteria during drip drying of
cans.
HYGIENIC MILK HANDLING AT
DAIRY FACTORIES (1)

 Floors of dairy buildings must be made of

hard washable surface.
 Walls should be smooth and washable to
about 2 meters from floor level and painted
with light colour.
 Doors should be self closing while windows
should be rendered insect proof by mosquito
netting to keep flies out.
 Rooms should be kept clean and in good
repair.
 All product-contact surfaces should be
cleaned immediately after use, before use or
as often as necessary, by cleaning techniques
appropriate to the equipment and process.
 HYGIENIC MILK HANDLING AT
DAIRY FACTORIES (2)

 Equipment and utensils should be

disinfected immediately after use or before
use, and whenever there has been
possibility of accidental contamination.

 Equipment repairs and maintenance should

preferably be carried out after processing.
Whenever machines have to be fixed during
production runs, adequate precautions
should be taken to prevent contamination
of dairy products.
Cleaning and disinfection of plant
and equipment.(1)
 Equipment used for handling liquid milk
products should preferably be cleaned
and disinfected after each period of use
and at least daily.
 Equipment used in handling fat rich
products such as butter and cheese
should be cleaned as required, but in any
case not less than once a week.
 The basic steps of cleaning plant and
equipment are:
Cleaning and disinfection of plant
and equipment.(2)
 Rinsing with water to remove excess soil
(Cold or tepid water (40-50° C) may be
used, but hot water of up to 85 0C maybe
used for butter- making equipment.)
 Washing with a detergent should then

follow until the surface of the equipment is

clean.
 A final rinse with cold potable water should

be done until the surface is free of

detergent.
 Sterilization
 Hot water- 850C for 10 minutes
 Steam- 990C for 5 minutes
 Chemicals – sodium hypochlorite & chlorine
or quaternary ammonium compounds (that
do not leave residues)

NB Typically in-place cleansing &

sterilization)
 Processing of milk
 Primary Objectives:
 Destruction of human pathogens through
pasteurization
 Keeping the quality of the product without
significant loss of flavour, appearance,
physical and nutritive properties
 Steps in Processing of Milk
 Clarification
 Homogenization
 Pasteurization
 Batch/holding method
 High–temperature-short-time method
(HTST)
 Sterilization (Commercial)/Ultra
pasteurization
 Clarification
 Milk might be blended first
 Use of centrifugal clarifier to remove
sediments, body cells & some bacteria.

 Bactofuge–type clarifier that can remove

much of the bacteria load but not sufficient
to remove all bacteria, especially pathogens.
 Pasteurization (1)
 Primary objective is to rid milk of
pathogens and reduce substantially the
bacterial count of spoilage organisms.
 Process also destroys lipase and other milk
nutrients.
 Initial pasteurization temperatures & times
focused on Mycobacterium tuberculosis
(141 0F for 30 minutes)
 Pasteurization (2)
 Subsequent recognition that rickettsial
organism Coxiella burnetii is more heat
resistant hence current pasteurization
temperature & time of 145 0 F (63 0 C) for
30 minutes for BATCH METHOD.

 High- Temperature -Short –Time (HTST

Method) :Pasteurization being done at
161 0F (72 0C) for 15 seconds.
 Batch Pasteurizer
.
 Operating Principles of HTST
Process
 Raw milk held in cool storage tank 40C (400 F) is
pumped through a heat exchanger and brought to
desired temperature.
 Milk is pumped through a holding tube of diameter
& length designed to ensure 15 seconds residence
time.
 Need to ensure that every particle of milk attains
and maintain minimum 72 0 C (1610 F) for no less
than 15 seconds.
 Temperature sensing device & flow diversion
valve ensure that no milk escapes the required
temperature .
HTST Pasteurizer
 HTST Pasteurizer
.
 Sterilization (Commercial)
 Ultra-pasteurization or ultra high
temperature processing ≥ 2800 F (1380 C)
 Milk produced is sterile & can keep up to 5

months at 700F
 Typically fortified with nutrients lost during

heat treatment.
 Quality Assurance
 Grade A pasteurized milk – a bacterial count
≤30,000 /ml or a coliform count of ≤10 per ml.

 Grade B pasteurized milk - a bacterial count

≤50,000 /ml or a coliform count of ≤10 per ml.

 Phosphatase test

 Methylene blue test

 Turbidity test
 Milk and Type 1 Diabetes
 Evidence implicating cow’s milk with Type 1
Diabetes
 Culprit – Milk protein, Bovine serum albumin
 Causes the body to produce antibodies
 Antibodies attack beta cells of the pancreas
 Produces insulin dependent diabetes
 Genetic predisposition and cow’s milk

exposure may cause childhood form of

diabetes
Iron deficiency and Cows
Milk
 Babies are born with iron stored in their bodies.
 Because they grow rapidly, infants and children

need to absorb an average of 1 mg of iron per

day.
 Since children only absorb about 10% of the

iron they eat, most children need to receive 8-

10 mg of iron per day.
 Breastfed babies need less, because iron is

absorbed 3 times better when it is in breast

milk.
Iron deficiency and Cows
Milk
 Cow's milk is a common cause of iron deficiency.
 It contains less iron than many other foods and also makes it

more difficult for the body to absorb iron from other foods.
 Cow's milk also can cause the intestines to lose small

amounts of blood.
 All infants be fed breast milk for at least 12 months. 
 Iron-rich foods include raisins, meats (especially liver), fish,

poultry, egg yolks, legumes (peas and beans), and whole-

grain bread.
 Diet is the most important way to prevent and treat iron

deficiency.
 The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) does NOT

recommend giving cow's milk to children under 1 year old.

American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that
infants under age of 1 not receive whole cow’s
milk
 Cow's milk is a poor source of iron. As stated earlier, iron
deficiency is the most common nutritional deficiency in infants.
 Cow's milk that has not been specially heat processed (such as the
heat processing used in infant formula) can cause intestinal blood
loss in some babies.
 Cow's milk contains only small amounts of vitamin C, vitamin E,
and copper.
 Cow's milk contains an excessively high level of protein --
approximately two to three times higher than either breast milk or
infant formula.
 The fat in cow's milk, different from that present in breast milk and
infant formula, is difficult for young babies to digest and absorb.
 The amount of sodium in cow's milk is greater than the amount an
infant should receive.

http://www.infantformula.org/for-parents/infant-feeding-nutrition