Carbohydrates (CHO)

 Provide the major exogenous source for glucose

 Each gram of carbohydrates provides 4 calories
 Carbohydrates are hydrophilic and require a series of reactions to
digest them to monosaccharides
 Carbohydrates consist of three main groups
 Simple Carbohydrates (Monosaccharides)
 Disaccharides
 Complex Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates Group
 Monosaccharides includes glucose, fructose, galactose, xylose and
ribose
 Disaccharides are created by the condensation of two
monossacharides and require hydrolysis

Example of disaccharides include- lactose, sucrose and

maltose
 Complex Carbohydrates include starch, fiber, glycogen and
glycolipids
Carbohydrates Digestion
Small intestine can only absorb monosaccharides

Two step process:

1. Intraluminal hydrolysis of starch to oligosaccharides by salivary
and pancreatic amylase
2. Membrane Digestion of oligosaccharides to monosaccharides by
brush border dissacharidases
Digestion
MOUTH
Salivary and Pancreatic α-Amylase
 The digestion of starch (amylopectin and amylose) begins in the
mouth, where chewing mixes the food with saliva.
 The salivary gland secrete liter of liquid per day into the mouth,
containing salivary α-Amylase and other components.
 Consuming diets high in carbohydrates has a positive feedback
loop resulting in increased oral amylase secretion
Digestion
Amylase is synthesized in the serous cells of the salivary glands
Amylase break starches into maltose and polysaccharides
 Amylase is sensitive to pH and thus is inhibited in the acidic
environment of the stomach
Amylase targets the α-1,4 bonds of complex carbohydrates and is
unable to break terminal bonds or α-1,6 bonds.
 Digestion
Pre-stomach – Salivary amylase : a 1-4 endoglycosidase

G
G G
G
G G G G G GG a Limit dextrins
G GG
G amylase
G
G G
G GGG
GG G a 1-6 link
maltotriose
GG
a 1-4 link G
G GG
G maltose G
G
isomaltose
 Digestion
SMALL INTESTINE
Pancreatic amylase is released from acinar cells into the small
intestine in concert with other enzymes under the stimulus of secretin
and CCK and continues the process of CHO digestion
 Starch is digested in the small intestine to simple components
derived from branched amylopectin
Oligosaccahrides and dissacharides are digested by specific enzymes
in the microvillus membrane (brush border)
Digestion
Digestion
Small Intestine
Pancreatic enzymes a-amylase

maltotriose maltose

G G G G G G G G + G G

amylose
a amylase

G G G G G
G G G
G G G G G G
G G G
amylopectin a Limit dextrins
 Digestion
Two different enzymes are
needed to cleave the
respective 1-4 and 1-6
glycosidic linkages in glycogen:
Glycogen phosphorylase
cleaves the alpha (1-4)
linkages. Amylo-1,6-
glucosidase, cleaves the alpha
1-6 linkage.
Digestion
Brush Border
 Brush border enzymes are synthesized in the endoplasmic
reticulum and glycosylated in the Golgi apparatus of the enterocyte.
 They are trafficked to the apical membrane where they are
anchored at the surface by a transmembrane segment
The anchored enzymes are active following cleavage of small
residue at the extracellular N-terminal end
Digestion
 Dissacharides are protected from proteolysis by glycolysation and are
found in higher concentration in villus enterocytes of the proximal small
bowel
These enzymes include
Maltase
Sucrase
Trehalase
Lactase
Isomaltase (de-branching enzyme digest α-1,6 bonds of limit
dextrins to produce glucose)
 Chemical Structure
Oligosaccharide, any e of from three to six
units of sicarbohydratmple sugars
(monosaccharides). A large number of
oligosaccharides have been prepared by
partially breaking down more complex
carbohydrates (polysaccharides). Most of
the few naturally occurring oligosaccharides
are found in plants. Raffinose, a
trisaccharide found in many plants, consists
of melibiose (galactose and glucose)
and fructose.
Oligosaccharide digestion..cont
G
G G G a Limit dextrins
G G G sucrase

G G

maltase G
G Glucoamylase (maltase)
or
a-dextrinase G G G

G G a-dextrinase
G G G
G
G
G G G
G
Rate Limiting Steps for absorption differs among carbohydrates:

 Sucrose uptake is regulated after hydrolysis by the apical

membrane uptake rate of fructose and glucose
 Lactose absorption is limited by the rate of hydrolysis
Carbohydrate Digestion
in Ruminants
Ingested carbohydrates are exposed to extensive pregastric
fermentation

 Most carbohydrates fermented by microbes

 In the ruminant, the primary site for carbohydrate digestion

is the reticulorumen.
Microbial Populations
Cellulolytic bacteria (fiber digesters)

 Produce cellulase - cleaves β1→4 linkages

 Primary substrates are cellulose and hemicellulose
 Prefer pH 6-7
Bacterial Digestion of Carbohydrates
RUMEN

Microbes attach to (colonize) fiber components and secrete

enzymes

Cellulose, hemicellulose digested by cellulases and

hemicellulases
Complex polysaccharides are digested to yield sugars that are
fermented to produce VFA
 Produce acetate, propionate, little butyrate, CO2

 Subsequent to production by the microbes, the VFA are absorbed

across the rumen or the small intestine and metabolized by the host
to produce energy-yielding compounds such as glucose.

The total and relative amounts of the VFA indicate dietary CHO and
subsequent rumen fermentation patterns.
Volatile Fatty Acids
Microbial Fermentation
Carbohydrates VFA’s

Glucose

 Short-chain fatty acids produced by microbes

- Rumen, cecum, colon
 3 basic types:
O O O
CH3 C CH3 CH2 C CH3 CH2 CH2 C
O– O– O–

Acetic acid (2c) Propionic acid (3c) Butyric acid (4c)

 VFA Formation
2 acetate + CO2 + CH4 + heat

1 Glucose 2 propionate + water

VFAs absorbed passively

from rumen to portal
blood. Provide 70-80%
of ruminant’s energy 1 butyrate + CO2 + CH4
needs
Uses of VFA
Acetate
Energy
Fatty acid synthesis
Propionate
Energy
Gluconeogenic – glucose synthesis
Butyrate
Energy
Rumen epithelial cells convert to ketone (beta hydroxybytyrate)
Proportions produced depends on diet
Ruminant Carbohydrate Digestion

SMALL INTESTINE

Secretion of digestive enzymes

 Digestive secretions from pancreas and liver
 Further digestion of carbohydrates
 Absorption of H2O, minerals, amino acids, glucose, fatty
acids
Overview of Carbohydrates and
Ruminants
Diet Protein Carbohydrate Fat
_____________________________________________

Bacterial Fatty Acids

Protein Starch VFA
Rumen
Propionate Acetate
Butyrate
_____________________________________________
Blood
Amino Acids Fatty Acids
_____________________________________________
Glucose
Tissue
Protein Lactose Fat
Carbohydrate Digestion and Absorption
Ruminant vs. Monogastrics
Digestive Feature Ruminant Non ruminant
Salivary amylase Zero High – primates
Moderate – pig
Low - carnivores
Pregastric fermentation High+ Zero in MOST cases
Gastric Very low Very low
Pancreatic amylase Moderate High
in SI
Glucose absorption Zero to High
from SI low
Post SI Low Low to High
References:
 Christine Waasdorp Hurtado, MD, MSCS, FAAP , Carbohydrate Digestion and
Absorption. NASPGHAN Physiology Series
 Digestion, Absorption and Transport of Carbohydrates, Chapter 27
 Ahmed Al-Sarkhy, 2009. Carbohydrate Digestion & Absorption
 Jean-Paul Achkar, 2012. Digestion and Absorption. Rainin Endowed Chair
for IBD Research Cleveland Clinic
Powerpoint Presentation in Carbohydrate Digestion and Metabolism