Artificial Intelligence

• Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a branch of Science which deals with helping

machines finding solutions to complex problems in a more human-like fashion.
• involves borrowing characteristics from human intelligence, and applying them
as algorithms in a computer friendly way.
• associated with Computer Science, but has many important links with other fields
such as Maths, Psychology, Cognition, Biology and Philosophy, among many
others.
•encompasses a huge variety of subfields : varying from general-purpose areas
such as perception and logical reasoning to specific tasks such as playing chess,
proving mathematical theorems, writing poetry, and diagnosing diseases.
•other fields move gradually into artificial intelligence to find the tools and
vocabulary to systematize and automate the intellectual tasks
•AI is truly a universal field
 HISTORY OF AI
First researchers to intelligent programs : Newell and Simon
History of AI is classified the into three periods as:
• Classical : 1950 to 1960
• concept of Artificial Intelligence came into existence.
. • research work carried out includes game plying, theorem proving and concept of
state space approach for solving a problem.
• Romantic : 1960 to1970
• making machine understand, that is usually mean the understanding of natural
language.
• knowledge representation technique “semantic net” was developed
• Modern : from 1970’s
• research on both theories and practical aspects of Artificial Intelligence.
• concepts like Expert system, Artificial Neurons, Pattern Recognition etc.
Components in AI
•
Hardware Components
• Software Components
• Architectural Components
Hardware Components of AI
• Pattern Matching • Natural Language processing

• Logic Representation • Knowledge Representation

• Symbolic Processing • Expert System

• Numeric Processing • Neural Network

• Problem Solving • Learning

• Heuristic Search • Planning

• Semantic Network
Architectural Components

• Uniprocessor
• Multiprocessor
• Special Purpose Processor
• Array Processor
• Vector Processor
• Parallel Processor
• Distributed Processor
Software Components

• Machine Language
• Assembly language
• High level Language
• LISP Language
• Fourth generation Language
• Object Oriented Language
• Distributed Language
• Natural Language
• Particular Problem Solving Language
 Definition of Artificial intelligence
• AI is the study of how to make computers do things which at the moment people do
better. This is ephemeral as it refers to the current state of computer science and it
excludes a major area ; problems that cannot be solved well either by computers or
by people at the moment.
• AI is a field of study that encompasses computational techniques for performing
tasks that apparently require intelligence when performed by humans.
• AI is the branch of computer science that is concerned with the automation of
intelligent behavior. A I is based upon the principles of computer science namely
data structures used in knowledge representation, the algorithms needed to apply
that knowledge and the languages and programming techniques used in their
implementation.
• AI is the field of study that seeks to explain and emulate intelligent behavior in
terms of computational processes.
• AI is about generating representations and procedures that automatically or
autonomously solve problems heretofore solved by humans.
Applications Area of AI
Importance of AI
Game Playing : Brute force based on positions.
Speech Recognition
Understanding Natural Language : understanding of the domain the text is about in addition
to the content text.
Computer Vision : 3D View of objects
Expert Systems knowledge from experts in the field is stored to knowledge base and used in
interpretation of situations. The usefulness of current expert systems depends on their users
having common sense.
Heuristic Classification : put some information in one of a fixed set of categories using
several sources of information
Theorem Proving many practical problems can be cast in terms of theorems. A general
theorem prover can therefore be widely applicable.
Symbolic Mathematics Symbolic mathematics refers to manipulation of formulas, rather than
arithmetic on numeric values viz. Algebra, Differential and Integral Calculus
Sub-fields of Artificial Intelligence

• Neural Networks – e.g. brain modelling, time series prediction, classification

• Evolutionary Computation – e.g. genetic algorithms, genetic programming
• Vision – e.g. object recognition, image understanding
• Robotics – e.g. intelligent control, autonomous exploration
• Expert Systems – e.g. decision support systems, teaching systems
• Speech Processing– e.g. speech recognition and production
• Natural Language Processing – e.g. machine translation
• Planning – e.g. scheduling, game playing
• Machine Learning – e.g. decision tree learning, version space learning Speech
Processing
Intelligence requires knowledge but knowledge possesses less desirable properties
such as
• It is voluminous
• it is difficult to characterize accurately
• it is constantly changing
• it differs from data by being organized in a way that corresponds to its application
AI Technique
Four important AI techniques are:
• Knowledge Representation: Knowledge needs to be represented somehow –
perhaps as a series of if-then rules, as a frame based system, as a semantic
network, or in the connection weights of an artificial neural network.
• Learning: Automatically building up knowledge from the environment – such as
acquiring the rules for a rule based expert system, or determining the appropriate
connection weights in an artificial neural network.
• Rule Systems: These could be explicitly built into an expert system by a
knowledge engineer, or implicit in the connection weights learnt by a neural
network.
• Search: This can take many forms – perhaps searching for a sequence of states
that leads quickly to a problem solution, or searching for a good set of connection
weights for a neural network by minimizing a fitness function.
AI technique is a
method that exploits knowledge that is represented so that the knowledge
captures generalizations;
situations that share properties, are grouped together, rather than being
allowed separate representation.
It can be understood by people who must provide it; although for many
programs the bulk of the data may come automatically, such as from readings.
In many AI domains people must supply the knowledge to programs in a
form the people understand and in a form that is acceptable to the program.
It can be easily modified to correct errors and reflect changes in real
conditions.
It can be widely used even if it is incomplete or inaccurate.
It can be used to help overcome its own sheer bulk by helping to narrow the
range of possibilities that must be usually considered.
• Problems dealt with in artificial intelligence generally use a common
term called 'state’.
• A state represents a status of the solution at a given step of the problem
solving procedure.
• The solution of a problem, thus, is a collection of the problem states.
The problem solving procedure applies an operator to a state to get the
next state.
• Then it applies another operator to the resulting state to derive a new
state. The process of applying an operator to a state and its subsequent
transition to the next state, thus, is continued
Formal description of a problem
• Define a state space that contains all possible configurations of the relevant
objects, without enumerating all the states in it.
• A state space represents a problem in terms of states and operators that change states
• Define some of these states as possible initial states;
• Specify one or more as acceptable solutions, these are goal states;
• Specify a set of rules as the possible actions allowed.
• involves about the generality of the rules, the assumptions made in the informal
presentation and how much work can be anticipated by inclusion in the rules.
• The control strategy: AI program needs a structure to facilitate the search
which is a characteristic of this type of program.
• Problem solving is an important aspect of Artificial Intelligence.
• A problem can be considered to consist of a goal and a set of actions that can be taken to
lead to the goal. At any given time, we consider the state of the search space to represent
where we have reached as a result of the actions we have applied so far.
• For example, consider the problem of looking for a contact lens on a football field. The
initial state is how we start out, which is to say we know that the lens is somewhere on the
field, but we don’t know where. If we use the representation where we examine the field
in units of one square foot, then our first action might be to examine the square in the top-
left corner of the field. If we do not find the lens there, we could consider the state now to
be that we have examined the top-left square and have not found the lens. After a number
of actions, the state might be that we have examined 500 squares, and we have now just
found the lens in the last square we examined. This is a goal state because it satisfies the
goal that we had of finding a contact lens.
• Search is a method that can be used by computers to examine a
problem space like this in order to find a goal. Often, we want to find
the goal as quickly as possible or without using too many resources. A
problem space can also be considered to be a search space because in
order to solve the problem, we will search the space for a goal state
The Importance of Search in AI
• goal based agents are essentially problem solving agents which must decide what
to do by searching for a sequence of actions that lead to their solutions.
• for production systems, there is a need to search for a sequence of rule
applications that lead to the required fact or action.
• For neural network systems, there is a need to search for the set of connection
weights that will result in the required input to output mapping.
Search algorithm to be used depend on the problem domain.
There are four important factors considered to decide the search algorithm to be
used :
• Completeness – Is a solution guaranteed to be found if at least one solution exists?
• Optimality – Is the solution found guaranteed to be the best (or lowest cost)
solution if there exists more than one solution?
• Time Complexity – The upper bound on the time required to find a solution, as a
function of the complexity of the problem.
• Space Complexity – The upper bound on the storage space (memory) required at
any point during the search, as a function of the complexity of the problem.
PRODUCTION SYSTEM
• The production system is a model of computation that can be applied to implement
search algorithms and model human problem solving.
• Such problem solving knowledge can be packed up in the form of little quanta
called productions.
• A production is a rule consisting of a situation recognition part and an action part.
• A production is a situation-action pair
• left side is a list of things to watch for
• right side is a list of things to do so.
• When productions are used in deductive systems, they are called premise conclusion
pairs
• the situation that trigger productions are specified combination of facts.
• actions are restricted to being assertion of new facts deduced directly from the
triggering combination.
CHARACTERISTICS
A production system consists of following components.
1. A set of production rules, which are of the form AB.
• left hand side  the current problem state
• right hand side  an output state.
A rule is applicable if its left hand side matches with the current problem state.
2. A database : contains all the appropriate information for the particular
task.
3. A control strategy :
• specifies order in which the rules will be compared to the database of rules
• way of resolving the conflicts that arise when several rules match simultaneously.
4. A rule applier, :, hecks the capability of rule by matching the content
state with the left hand side of the rule and finds the appropriate rule
from database of rules.
• The important roles played by production systems include
• a powerful knowledge representation scheme. A production system
• represents knowledge and also its action.
• acts as a bridge between AI and expert systems.
• provides a language in which the representation of expert knowledge
is very natural
• Knowledge is represented in a production system as a set of rules of
the form
If (condition) THEN (condition)
• control system serves as a rule interpreter and sequencer.
• database acts as a context buffer, which records the conditions
evaluated by the rules and information on which the rules act.
• production rules are also known as condition – action, antecedent –
consequent, pattern – action, situation – response, feedback – result
pairs.
Production system can be classified as
• monotonic,
• non-monotonic,
• partially commutative
• commutative
Features of Production System
• Problem Space refers to the entire range of components that exist in
the process of finding a solution to a problem.
• It includes the following steps:
• defining the problem,
• identifying and testing possible solutions
• choosing and implementing a solution
• Any steps that exist between these identified stages.
Problem characteristics
These characteristics are known as 7-problem characteristics under which
the solution must take place.
• Is the problem decomposable into set of sub problems?
• Can the solution step be ignored or undone?
• Chess  cannot undone (irrecoverable)
• Puzzle  can be undone (recoverable)
• Is the problem universally predictable?
• In case of card game we cannot predict what is in opponents hand and what would
be his reaction after our show. We can move according to our choice.
• Some problems are uncertain and undone, for them planning leads to high cost and
time. Controlling a robot arm uncertain
• 8 Puzzle  certain
• Depending a client against murder charge is  uncertain.
• Is a good solution to the problem obvious without comparison to all the
possible solutions?
• If we know initial state, goal state to be achieved and instructions to be followed
then solution would be absolute else relative.
• Is the desire solution a state of world or a path to a state?
• Each state opted for solving a problem must have interaction with next or previous
states.
• Eg. A bank president ate a dish of pasta salad with fork
• Natural language understanding and numerical problems can better distinguish
between a state or a solution.
• Is a large amount of knowledge absolutely required to solve the problem?
• How much knowledge is required like chess requires only knowledge of legal and
possible moves while Which newspaper supports republicans or democrats requires
high knowledge.
• Will the solution of the problem required interaction between the
computer and the person?
• How much interaction between user and a system is required?
• Interaction can be for taking input, giving output, taking or giving instructions,
updating knowledge base.
Problem
• Any task to be done or goal to be achieved
• A problem can be solved by
• Defining configuration of problem precisely.
• Analysing the problem
• Defining essential features – which can have an impact on
accuracy of problem solving techniques.
• Defining knowledge to solve a particular problem
• Applying best possible technique to solve it.
Disadvantages of production system
• Opacity: This problem is generated by the combination of production rules. The
opacity is generated because of less prioritization of rules. More priority to a rule
has the less opacity.
• Inefficiency: During execution of a program several rules may active. A well
devised control strategy reduces this problem. As the rules of the production
system are large in number and they are hardly written in hierarchical manner, it
requires some forms of complex search through all the production rules for each
cycle of control program.
• Absence of learning: Rule based production systems do not store the result of the
problem for future use. Hence, it does not exhibit any type of learning capabilities.
So for each time for a particular problem, some new solutions may come.
• Conflict resolution: The rules in a production system should not have any type of
conflict operations. When a new rule is added to a database, it should ensure that it
does not have any conflicts with the existing rules.
• Strategies for state space search
• By the search directions:
• data-driven search (forward chaining)
• goal-driven search (backward chaining)
• bidirectional search
• By whether using domain-specific information:
• Blind search methods
• Heuristic search
• Data-driven and goal-driven searches search the same state space
graph; but, the order and actual number of state searched can be
differ.
• The preferred strategy is determined by the properties of the problem
itself:
• the complexity of the rules used for changing states – the shape of
the state space – the nature and availability of the data
 ALGORITHM OF PROBLEM SOLVING
General problem solving algorithm, which may work for different strategies
of different problems.
• Step 1: Analyze the problem to get the starting state and goal state.
• Step 2:Find out the data about the starting state, goal state
• Step 3:: Find out the production rules from initial database for proceeding
the problem to goal state.
• Step 4: Select some rules from the set of rules that can be applied to data.
• Step 5: Apply those rules to the initial state and proceed to get the
next state.
• Step 6: Determine some new generated states after applying the
rules. Accordingly make them as current state.
• Step 7: Finally, achieve some information about the goal state from
the recently used current state and get the goal state.
• Step 8: Exit.
After applying the above rules an user may get the solution of the
problem from a given state to another state.
AI problems
• Towers Hanoi
• A possible state space representation of the Towers Hanoi problem
using a graph
Towers of Hanoi

In a monastery in the deepest Tibet there are three crystal columns and
64 golden rings. The rings are different sizes and rest over the columns.
At the beginning of time all the rings rested on the leftmost column, and
since than the monks have toiled ceaselessly moving the rings one by
one between the columns. In moving the rings a larger ring must not be
placed on a smaller ring. Furthermore, only one ring at a time can be
moved from one column to the next. A simplified version of this
problem which will consider involves only 2 or 3 rings instead of 64.
• 8-Puzzle
• The 8-Puzzle involves moving the tiles on the board above into a
particular configuration. The black square on the board represents a
space. The player can move a tile into the space, freeing that position
for another tile to be moved into and so on.
• For example, given the initial state above we may want the tiles to be
moved so that the following goal state may be attained.
Water Jug Problem

Definition:
• Some jugs are given which should have non-calibrated properties. At least
any one of the jugs should have filled with water. Then the process through
which we can divide the whole water into different jugs according to the
question can be called as water jug problem.
Procedure:
• Suppose that you are given 3 jugs A,B,C with capacities 8,5 and 3 liters
respectively but are not calibrated (i.e. no measuring mark will be there).
Jug A is filled with 8 liters of water. By a series of pouring back and forth
among the 3 jugs, divide the 8 liters into 2 equal parts i.e. 4 liters in jug A
and 4 liters in jug B. How?
Solution
Missionaries and Carnivals Problem

Definition:
• In Missionaries and Carnivals Problem, initially there are some missionaries and
some carnivals will be at a side of a river. They want to cross the river. But there is
only one boat available to cross the river. The capacity of the boat is 2 and no one
missionary or no Carnivals can cross the river together. So for solving the problem
and to find out the solution on different states is called the Missionaries and
Carnival Problem.
Procedure:
• Let us take an example. Initially a boatman, Grass, Tiger and Goat is present at the
left bank of the river and want to cross it. The only boat available is one capable of
carrying 2 objects of portions at a time. The condition of safe crossing is that at no
time the tiger present with goat, the goat present with the grass at the either side of
the river. How they will cross the river?
• Representations : B: Boat T: Tiger G: Goat Gr: Grass
 Step 1

Step 2

Step 3
 Step 4(a)
Step 3

Step 4(b)
 Step 5 (a)

Step 5 (b)

Step 6

Step 7
Monkey Banana Problem
Definition:
• “A monkey is in a room. A bunch of bananas is hanging from the ceiling. The
monkey cannot reach the bananas directly. There is a box in the corner of the
room. How can the monkey get the bananas?”
Procedure:
• The solution of the problem is of course that the monkey must push the box under
the bananas, then stand on the box and grab the bananas. But the solution
procedure requires a lot of planning algorithms.
• Initially, the monkey is at location ‘A’, the banana is at location ‘B’ and the box is
at location ‘C’ . The monkey and box have height “low”; but if the monkey climbs
onto the box will have height “High”, the same as the bananas. The action
available to the monkey include:
“GO” from one place to another. “PUSH” an object from one place to another.
“Climb” onto an object. “Grasp” an object.
• Grasping results in holding the object if the monkey and the object are in the same
place at the same height.
• A state space is a set of descriptions or states.
• Each search problem consists of:
• One or more initial states.
• A set of legal actions. Actions are represented by operators or moves applied to
each state. For example, the operators in a state space representation of the 8-
puzzle problem are left, right, up and down.
• One or more goal states.
• The number of operators are problem dependent and specific to a
particular state space representation. The more operators the larger the
branching factor of the state space. Thus, the number of operators should
kept to a minimum, e.g. 8-puzzle: operations are defined in terms of
moving the space instead of the tiles
• State space is generated at run-time not built in advance
• A search algorithm is applied to a state space representation to find a
solution path. Each search algorithm applies a particular search strategy.
Factors To Develop A State Space
Representation
• What is the goal to be achieved?
• What are the legal moves or actions?
• What knowledge needs to be represented in the state description?
• Type of problem - There are basically three types of problems.
• problems only need a representation, e.g. crossword puzzles.
• problems require a yes or no response indicating whether a solution can be found or
not.
• problem are those that require a solution path as an output, e.g. mathematical
theorems, Towers of Hanoi. Here the goal state is known. The problem is to identify
how to attain this state
• Best solution vs. Good enough solution
• some problems a good enough solution is sufficient e.g. theorem proving , eight
squares.
• some problems require a best or optimal solution, e.g. the traveling salesman
problem.
Predicate Logic
• Propositional logic is not powerful enough to express statements such
as
For every number there is a prime larger than that number.
The limit of sin(x)=x as x approaches 0 is 1.
The function x 7! x3 is a bijection.
The set of all real numbers is larger than the set of all natural numbers.
• In order to express such statements we need to enlarge the language of
logic a bit. E.g., the first statement has the following structure:
• for all x – universal quantifier
• there exists a y – existential quantifier
•x<y – binary relation
• and – logical connective
• y is prime – unary relation
We keep all logical connectives. But we add
• constants that denote individual objects,
• variables that range over individual objects,
• quantifiers that express “for all” and “there exists”,
• function symbols that denote functions,
• relation symbols that denote relations
Notation:
• a, b, c, …. for constants, and x, y, z, … for variables,
• ∀ for the universal quantifier, and Ǝ for the existential
quantifier,
• f , g, h, …. for function symbols, and R, P , Q, … for relation
symbols.
• Always allow = for equality
Syntax and Semantics
Predicate logic is very expressive, but we need to clarify
several important items.
• First give a precise definition of what a formula in predicate
logic is. (similar to syntax in programming language)
• Then associate a clear definition of truth (usually called
validity) with these formulae. (similar to semantics of a programming
language)
• To define validity, define structures, domains over which a
formula in predicate logic can be interpreted.
Syntax: Terms and Formulae
• Every function symbol and relation symbol has a fixed
number of arguments, its arity.
Terms are defined inductively by
• Every constant and variable is a term.
• If f is an n-ary function symbol, and t1….. tn are terms, then f
(t1….. tn) is also a term.
An atomic formula is an expression of the form R(t1….. tn
)where R is an n-ary relation symbol, and t1….. tn are terms.
• formulae are defined inductively by
• Every atomic formula is a is a formula.
• If 𝜑 and 𝜓 are formulae, so are (¬𝜑), (𝜑 ^ 𝜓 ), (𝜑 v 𝜓 ), and
(𝜑 → 𝜓 ).
If 𝜑 is a formula and x a variable, then (∃x 𝜑) and (∀x 𝜑) are
also formulae
A variable that is not in the range of a quantifier is free
• ∀(x; y) x and y are free
• ∃x𝜑(x, y) only y is free
• ∀y∃x𝜑 (x, y) nothing free
• A formula without free variables is closed, or a sentence.
• First-order logic
• Whereas propositional logic assumes the world contains facts, first-
order logic (like natural language) assumes the world contains
• Objects: people, houses, numbers, colors, baseball games, wars, …
• Relations: red, round, prime, brother of, bigger than, part of, comes
between,
• Brothers are siblings
• Sibling is symmetric
• One's mother is one's female parent
The owner of Rocco owner(rocco)
The owner of a cat that is chased by a dog will be mad at the owner of the dog
(∀ X) (∀ Y) [(dog(X) ^ cat(Y) ^ chases(X, Y)) → madAt(owner(Y), owner(X))]
Every dog has the barks property (∀ X) (dog(X) → barks(X))
•
 Inference rules:
• Generating the conclusions from evidence and facts is termed as Inference.
• Inference rules are the templates for generating valid arguments. Inference rules
are applied to derive proofs in artificial intelligence, and the proof is a sequence
of the conclusion that leads to the desired goal. In inference rules, the implication
among all the connectives plays an important role. Following are some
terminologies related to inference rules:
• Implication: It is one of the logical connectives which can be represented as P → Q. It is a
Boolean expression.
• Converse: The converse of implication, which means the right-hand side proposition goes to
the left-hand side and vice-versa. It can be written as Q → P.
• Contrapositive: The negation of converse is termed as contrapositive, and it can be
represented as ¬ Q → ¬ P.
• Inverse: The negation of implication is called inverse. It can be represented as ¬ P → ¬ Q.
Types of Inference rules:
• 1. Modus Ponens:
• The Modus Ponens rule is one of the most important rules of inference, and
it states that if P and P → Q is true, then we can infer that Q will be true. It
can be represented as:

• Example:
• Statement-1: "If I am sleepy then I go to bed" ==> P→ Q
Statement-2: "I am sleepy" ==> P
Conclusion: "I go to bed." ==> Q.
Hence, we can say that, if P→ Q is true and P is true then Q will be true.
• Proof by Truth table:
• Modus Tollens:
• The Modus Tollens rule state that if P→ Q is true and ¬ Q is true,
then ¬ P will also true. It can be represented as:
• Example:
• Statement-1: "If I am sleepy then I go to bed" ==> P→ Q
Statement-2: "I do not go to the bed."==> ~Q
Statement-3: Which infers that "I am not sleepy" => ~P
• Hypothetical Syllogism:
• The Hypothetical Syllogism rule state that if P→R is true whenever
P→Q is true, and Q→R is true. It can be represented as the following
notation:
• Example:
• Statement-1: If you have my home key then you can unlock my
home. P→Q
Statement-2: If you can unlock my home then you can take my
money. Q→R
Conclusion: If you have my home key then you can take my money.
P→R
Disjunctive Syllogism:
• The Disjunctive syllogism rule state that if P∨Q is true, and ¬P is true,
then Q will be true. It can be represented as:

Example:
• Statement-1: Today is Sunday or Monday. ==>P∨Q
Statement-2: Today is not Sunday. ==> ¬P
Conclusion: Today is Monday. ==> Q
• Addition:
• The Addition rule is one the common inference rule, and it states that
If P is true, then P∨Q will be true.

Example:
Statement: I have a vanilla ice-cream. ==> P
Statement-2: I have Chocolate ice-cream.
Conclusion: I have vanilla or chocolate ice-cream. ==> (P∨Q)
• Proof by Truth-Table:
•
Simplification:
• The simplification rule state that if P∧ Q is true, then Q or P will also
be true. It can be represented as:

Proof by Truth-Table:
Resolution:
The Resolution rule state that if P∨Q and ¬ P∧R is true, then Q∨R will also be true.
It can be represented as

Proof by Truth-Table:
• State Space Description of a Logic System
• With sound and complete inference rules, graph-based reasoning can
be used to find correct conclusions. In short, logic systems can be
mapped with graph theory and solved with search methods.

And/Or Graphs
• Hypergraphs can be used to accurately depict and/or relations in
graph theory. These graphs can have multiple arcs between nodes. The
and relations will be shown by connecting descendant arcs together
with a line.
• Representation
• Logical expressions as states
• Inference rules as links
• Correctness
• Soundness and completeness of predicate calculus inference rules guarantee
the correctness of conclusions
• Theorem Proof
• State space search
State space graph of the propositional
calculus
• Letters as nodes
• Implications as links
• qp
• rp
• vq
• sr
• tr
• su
 And/or graph
• Or – separate
• And – connected
• And/or graph of expression q  r  p

• And/or graph of the expression q  r → p

And/or graph of a set of propositional calculus
expressions.
And/or graph of part of the state space for integrating a
function
English sentences and their predicate calculus
equivalents:
The solution subgraph showing that Fred is at the museum.
Rules for a simple subset of English grammar
And/or graph for the grammar.
Parse tree for the sentence “The dog bites the man.”
Content for module 2
• http://www.cs.ukzn.ac.za/~hughm/ai/notes/searches.pdf