Data analysis: The

Constant Comparative
Method
Data Analysis in Qualitative Research

One of the most important features that distinguishes

qualitative research from quantitative research is the Data
Analysis Procedure. Data analysis procedure in qualitative
research occurs or is done simultaneously with data
collection. The preliminary data collected can affect/change
the research questions, sample and even the interview
questions. This is in a sense what we call as emergent
design.
What is Data Analysis in Qualitative Research?

Flick (2014) describes it as “the classification and

interpretation of linguistic (visual) material to make
statements about implicit and explicit dimension and
structure of meaning-making in the meaning material and
what is represented in it” (p. 05).
What is the goal of data analysis?

According to Merriam and Tisdell (2014), data analysis is a

meaning construction process. This process involves
consolidation, reduction and interpretation of what people
have said and what the researcher has seen and read.
Its main goal is to derive pattern by creating codes and
categories (themes) that will serve as an answer to the
research questions.
Codes and Categories

Codes are words or phrases that serve as a

preliminary classification of the data being
analyzed. Once coding is done, one can proceed to
construct *categories that may encompass several
codes.

*Categories are conceptual elements that cover or span many individual examples
(codes).
Let’s Practice

Materials

 Receipts
 Pencil
 Bond paper
 Manila paper
 Marker
Instructions

Create codes and categories using the items in your

receipt/s. Present your work in front of the class.

Example:
Your receipt/s have the following items:
Sample receipt
1 Zonrox Laundry materials
1 kitchen knife
3 Bar of Surf
1 surf Powder
1 Downy
2 dozen of shampoo
3 boxes orange
1 Box of Grapes
1 box of milk powder
1 Sunsilk Conditioner
Laundry Materials for Fruits Beverage
materials bathroom

Zonrox Shampoo Grapes Milk

Bar soap (surf) Conditioner Orange Coffee

Downy
Materials

 Interview transcripts
 Index Cards
 A pair of scissors
 Marker
 Manila Paper
 Bond/color papers
Steps

 Unitizing data or meaning condensation

 Discovery
 Provisional Coding (Constant Comparative Method)
 Refinement of Categories
 Outcome Proposition
Unitizing the data

The process of qualitative data analysis is one of culling

meaning from words and actions of the participants in the
study, framed by the researchers' focus of inquiry. This
search for meaning is accomplished by first the smaller units
of meaning in the data which will later serve as the basis for
defining larger categories.
What is a unit of meaning?

A unit of meaning can be a sentence or a paragraph that can

stand on its own without additional information.
Example
Interviewer: What are negative effects of
having a broken family do you see in yourself
in school?

Interviewee: Nawawalan ako ng ganang mag-aral,

at hindi ko maituon ang buo kong atensyon sa aking
mga gawain. Natatakot na baka habangbuhay na
kaming magkakahiwalay. Ng dahil sa pagiging
pagkakahiwalay namen lumiliit narin ang pag asa
kong makamit ang aking mga pangarap.
T/N-1

Nawawalan ako ng ganang mag-aral, at hindi ko maituon

ang buo kong atensyon sa aking mga gawain. Natatakot
na baka habangbuhay na kaming magkakahiwalay. Ng
dahil sa pagiging pagkakahiwalay namen lumiliit narin
ang pag asa kong makamit ang aking mga pangarap.
Open Coding

 After the unit of meaning has been written in the data

cards, the researcher needs to indicate the essence of the
unit’s meaning using a word or a phrase.
Example
Interviewer: What are negative effects of
having a broken family do you see in yourself Low motivation
in school? and inability to
focus

Interviewee: Nawawalan ako ng ganang mag-aral,

at hindi ko maituon ang buo kong atensyon sa aking
mga gawain. Natatakot na baka habangbuhay na
kaming magkakahiwalay. Ng dahil sa pagiging
pagkakahiwalay namen lumiliit narin ang pag asa
kong makamit ang aking mga pangarap.
T/N-1
Low motivation and Inability to focus
Nawawalan ako ng ganang mag-aral, at hindi ko maituon
ang buo kong atensyon sa aking mga gawain. Natatakot
na baka habangbuhay na kaming magkakahiwalay. Ng
dahil sa pagiging pagkakahiwalay namen lumiliit narin
ang pag asa kong makamit ang aking mga pangarap.
Axial Coding

 In this process the researcher will come up with

categories under which the data cards or codes
can be classified.
Discovery

Discovery refers to the initial step in identifying a

large array of potentially important experiences,
ideas, concepts, themes in the data.
Research Questions Discovery
1. What are the effects of Low motivation and inability
having a broken family to to focus
the students’ learning?
Becoming independent
2. What are the effects of
Difficulty to build trust
having a broken family to
the students’ relationship Inappropriate behaviors
with peers and relatives? Living with relatives
3. How do the students Depending on peers
cope up with these
effects?
Constant Comparative Method

Glaser and Strauss (1967) defined Constant Comparative

Method as a way of analyzing qualitative data that combines
inductive category coding with simultaneous comparison of
all the units of meaning.
Inductive category coding with simultaneous
comparison of all the units of meaning

 Select a word or a phrase in your discovery sheet. This

word/phrase will serve as your first provisional category
(Axial Coding).
 Write your first provisional category on a cut color/bond
paper. Tape this on your Manila paper.
 Look through your data cards and see if one or more cards
fit into this category. If it does, tape it under your
provisional category. See image below:
 Independence Bad relationship with the
parent after separation

Doing my Making Misunderstanding Defiant

laundry on decision on with a parent behavior
my own my own
Constant argument
Earning with a parent
money on
my own
 Using the look/feel like criteria, decide whether the next
card belongs to the first category. If it does, tape it
underneath it.
 If the next data card you read does not fit to your first
category, reexamine your discovery sheet and begin
another category where the card fits. If the card/note
does not fit to any words in your data sheet, create a new
category based on the meaning of the card. You can use
word/phrase from the data to name the category.
Look/feel like Criteria

Lincoln and Guba(1985) advance this idea as a way of

describing the emergent process of categorizing qualitative
data. The researcher will ask him/herself whether the unit
of meaning on one card is very similar to the unit of meaning
on another card.
Refinement of Categories
 After the categories have been identified, the researcher
can proceed to the refinement of categories.
 Refinement of categories involves of a process of creating
new categories by combining the different categories
(now called subcategories) into one.
Real Abstract

Data Code
Data Category
Data Code
Data
Data
Code
Data
Data
Data Code
Data Category Assertion
Themes/concept
Data /Theory
Data Code
Data
Data
Code
Data
Category
Data
Code
Data
Data
Data Code
Data Subcategory

Subcategory
Particular General
Categories and Subcategories
Improved Bad relationship with Lack of motivation to
Relationship parent/s study
with friends
Tardiness
Financial Struggle
Closeness with
Feeling alone
grandparents

Independence Feeling empty and Taking care of

sad younger siblings
 Independence

Improved Financial Struggle

Relationship
Develops good Additional
with friends Taking care of
relationship with responsibilities
immediate peers or younger siblings
Closeness with guardians
grandparents
Bad relationship with
parent/s
Feeling alone
Feeling Negative
Emotion
Feeling empty and
sad

Lack of motivation to Negative

study attitude toward
studying
Tardiness
Propositional Statement as a Rule for
Inclusion
 After groups of cards have been clustered together under
different categories, the next step would be to identify
the characteristics and properties shared by the data
cards. Using these properties and characteristics, the
researcher writes a rule for inclusion.
 A rule for inclusion is a statement that serves as a basis
for including the data cards under a category.
 Lincoln and Guba(1985) recommends that the rule for
inclusion be written as a propostional statement— a
general statement based on the data.
Examples of Propositional Statement
Good relationship with immediate peers or guardians: The/most/some
participants have developed good relationship with friends and their guardians.
Feeling Negative Emotion: The/most/some participants have a feeling of
emptiness and loneliness.
Negative attitude toward studying: The/most/some participants have had
negative attitudes toward studying such as tardiness, low motivation and
inability to study.
Additional responsibilities: The/most/some participants have claimed that they
have to take additional responsibilities such as working to avoid financial
struggles and taking care siblings.
Bad relationship with parent/s: The/most/some participants have developed ill
feelings toward one or both of their parents.
Independence: The/most/some participants have become independent—relying
on oneself for decision making.
Propositional Outcome

 The/most/some participants experience financial struggles,

emotional breakdown, lack of motivation to study and ill feelings
toward his/her parents.
 Because the/most/some participants have developed ill feelings
toward one or both of their parents they tend to form closer bond
with their immediate peers.
 Additional responsibilities have made the participants more
independent or self-reliant.
Revised Research Questions

 What are the struggles of people from a broken family?

 How do people from a broken family adjust to their situation?
References:
 Almeida, A.B., Gaerlan, A.A., Manly, N.E. (2016). Research fundamentals:
From concept to output. Quezon City, Manila: Adiana Printing Co. Inc.
 Maykut, P. and Morehouse, R. (1994). Beginning qualitative research: A
philosophic and practical Guide. USA: The Falmer Press.
 Merriam, S. & Tisdell, E.J. (2016). Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design
and Implementation. San Francisco, USA: Jossey-Bass.
 Nunan, D. and Bailey, C.M. (2009). Exploring second language classroom
research. Pasig city, Philippines: Cenage Learning.
 Prieto, N.G., Naval, V.C., Carey, T.G. (2017). Practical research 1 for Senior
High School: Qualitative. Cubao City, Manila: Lorimar Publishing, INC
 Saldana, J. (2016). The Coding Manual for Qualitative Research. London,
England: Sage Publishing.