ELECTROTHERAPY-1

BPT 1009
ASSIGNMENT
Topic: rectifiers, thermionic valves, semiconductors, transistors,
amplifiers, transducer and oscillator circuit

Submitted to: Submitted by: Ajay Gupta 1003, Ajay Kumar 1004, Arjun Singh 1010, Chahat
Dr. Sonali Kumari 1016, Garima Sharma 1018, Nishtha T Adesara 1043, Somya Bhardwaj 1065
Rectifiers

 RECTIFIER is an electrical device that converts alternating

current (AC) to direct current (DC). The process is called
rectification.

 Applications: DC welder, DC motor drive, Battery charger,

DC power supply, HVDC
Half wave rectifier
 Single diode rectifier is connected across an alternating voltage source
Vs. Since the diode only conducts when the anode is positive with
respect to the cathode, current will flow only during the positive half
cycle of the input voltage.
 During the positive half cycle of the source, the ideal diode is forward
biased and operates as a closed switch. The source voltage is directly
connected across the load. During the negative half cycle, the diode is
reverse biased and acts as an open switch. The source voltage is
disconnected from the load. As no current flows through the load, the
load voltage Vo is zero. Both the load voltage and current are of one
polarity and hence said to be rectified.
Full wave rectifier
 Consider the first half-cycle, when the source voltage polarity is
positive (+) on top and negative (-) on bottom. At this time, only the
top diode is conducting; the bottom diode is blocking current, and the
load “sees” the first half of the sine wave, positive on top and negative
on bottom. Only the top half of the transformer's secondary winding
carries current during this half-cycle.
 During the next half-cycle, the AC polarity reverses. Now, the other
diode and the other half of the transformer's secondary winding carry
current while the portions of the circuit formerly carrying current
during the last half cycle sit idle.
Thermionic valves
 It is an electronic device consisting of a system of electrodes arranged in an
evacuated glass or metal envelope. It is a device that controls electric current
flow in a high vacuum between electrodes to which an electric potential
difference has been applied.

 The type known as a thermionic tube or thermionic valve uses the

phenomenon of thermionic emission of electrons from a heated cathode and is
used for a number of fundamental electronic functions such as
signal amplification and current rectification.
Semiconductors
 Semiconductors are materials which have a conductivity between conductors (generally
metals) and insulators (such as most ceramics). Semiconductors can be pure elements,
such as silicon or germanium, or compounds such as gallium arsenide or cadmium
selenide. In a process called doping, small amounts of impurities are added to pure
semiconductors causing large changes in the conductivity of the material.

 In a process called doping, small amounts of impurities are added to pure

semiconductors causing large changes in the conductivity of the material. Doping greatly
increases the number of charge carriers within the crystal. When a doped
semiconductor contains mostly free holes it is called “p-type", and when it contains
mostly free electrons it is known as “n-type". The semiconductor materials used in
electronic devices are doped under precise conditions to control the concentration and
regions of p- and n-type dopants. A single semiconductor crystal can have many p- and
n-type regions; the p-n junctions between these regions are responsible for the useful
electronic behavior.
Transistor
 A transistor is a semiconductor device used
to amplify or switch electrode signals and electrical power.
It is composed of semiconductor material usually with at
least three terminals for connection to an external circuit.
A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's
terminals controls the current through another pair of
terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be
higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can
amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged
individually, but many more are found embedded
in integrated circuits.
Transistor
Transistor as an amplifier
 The DC bias voltage applied to the emitter base junction, makes it
remain in forward biased condition. This forward bias is maintained
regardless of the polarity of the signal.
 The low resistance in input circuit, lets any small change in input
signal to result in an appreciable change in the output. The emitter
current caused by the input signal contributes the collector current,
which when flows through the load resistor RL, results in a large
voltage drop across it. Thus a small input voltage results in a large
output voltage, which shows that the transistor works as an amplifier.
Transducer
 A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another.
Usually a transducer converts a signal in one form of energy to a signal
in another.
 Transducers are often employed at the boundaries
of automation, measurement, and control systems, where electrical
signals are converted to and from other physical quantities (energy,
force, torque, light, motion, position, etc.). The process of converting
one form of energy to another is known as transduction.
 Transducers that convert physical quantities into mechanical quantities
are known as mechanical transducers; transducers that convert physical
quantities into electrical quantities are known as electrical transducers.
Examples are a thermocouple that changes temperature differences into
a small voltage, or a transducer head in a therapeutic ultrasound
machine which converts ultrasound waves to heat energy.
Transducer
Oscillator circuit
 Oscillators convert a DC input (the supply voltage) into an
AC output (the waveform), which can have a wide range of
different wave shapes and frequencies. Oscillators are also
used in many pieces of test equipment producing either
sinusoidal sine waves, square, saw tooth or triangular
shaped waveforms or just a train of pulses of a variable or
constant width. LC Oscillators are commonly used in
radio-frequency circuits because of their good phase noise
characteristics and their ease of implementation.
THANK YOU !