VFD

Variable Frequency
Drives (VFD)
Prepared & Presented By:
M.SHAKEEL-UD-DIN
Content
 Introduction
 Functions of Variable Frequency Drive
 Control Arrangements of VFD
 Parts & Operation of a VFD
 Application Terminology for VFD
 Power Input Terminology for VFD
 Maintenance of VFD
 Squirrel Cage Induction Motor (SCIM)
 Power Electronic Convertors
Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 2
Content: (Continued)
 SCR / Thyristors
 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)

Introduction
 Working Principal:
 The speed (n) of the motor can be controlled either by
adjusting the supply frequency (f) or the number of poles
(p). In an AC induction motor, the synchronous speed,
which is the speed at which the stator field rotates, is
governed by the simple formula:

Introduction: (Continued)
 The air-gap flux (Φ) of an AC induction motor is directly
proportional to the magnitude of the supply voltage (V) and
inversely proportional to the frequency (f).
 So the speed control of AC motors is complicated by the fact

that both voltage and frequency need to be controlled
simultaneously, hence the name variable voltage, variable
frequency (VVVF) converter.

 So, to maintain constant motor output torque, the flux density
must be kept constant which means that the ratio V/f must be
kept constant.
 The direction of rotation of the AC motor can be reversed by

changing the firing sequence power electronic valves of the
inverter stage. This is simply done through the electronic
control circuit.

 Output power of the AC motor is proportional to the product
of torque and speed.

 Basic Construction:

 Types of VSD:
(a) Ward-Leonard system
(b) Thyristors controlled DC drive
(c) Voltage source inverter (PAM) AC drive
(d) PWM voltage source (PWM) AC drive



 Cycloconverter:

 The Need Of The VFD?
 To match the speed of the drive to

process requirements.
 To match the torque of the drive to
process requirements.
 To Save Energy & improve Efficiency.

 BENEFITS OF VFD:
 energy savings
 low motor starting current
 Reduction of thermal and mechanical stresses on motors and
belts during starts
 simple installation
 high power factor

 High Power Factor
 Power converted to motion, heat, sound, etc. is called real power and is
measured in kilowatts (kW). Power that charges capacitors or builds
magnetic fields is called reactive power and is measured in Kilovolts
Amps Reactive (kVAR). The vector sum of the kW and the kVAR is the
Total Power (energy) and is measured in Kilovolt Amperes (KVA) (Figure
5). Power factor is the ratio of kW/KVA.
 Motors draw reactive current to support their magnetic fields in order to

cause rotation. Excessive reactive current is undesirable because it
creates additional resistance losses and can require the use of larger
transformers and wires. In addition, utilities often penalize owners for
low power factor. Decreasing reactive current will increase power factor.


 The VFDs include capacitors in the DC Bus that
perform the same function and maintain high power
factor on the line side of the VFD. This eliminates the
need to add power factor correction equipment to
the motor or use expensive capacitor banks. In
addition, VFDs often result in higher line side power
factor values than constant speed motors equipped
with correction capacitors.

 Drawback of VFD:
 A discussion of the benefits of VFDs often leads to a question
regarding harmonics. When evaluating VFDs, it is important to
understand how harmonics are provided and the
circumstances under which harmonics are harmful.
 Harmonics:
A harmonic is any current form at an integral multiple of the
fundamental frequency. For example, for 60-hertz power
supplies, harmonics would be at 120 hertz (2 x fundamental),
180 hertz, 240 hertz, 300 hertz, etc.

 What Causes Harmonics?
 VFDs draw current from the line only when the line voltage is
greater than the DC Bus voltage inside the drive. This occurs
only near the peaks of the sine wave. As a result, all of the
current is drawn in short intervals (i.e., at higher frequencies).
Variation in VFD design affects the harmonics produced. For
example, VFDs equipped with DC link inductors produce
different levels of harmonics than similar VFDs without DC link
inductors. The VFDs with active front ends utilizing transistors
in the rectifier section have much lower harmonic levels than
VFDs using diodes or silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs).

Are Harmonics Harmful?
 Harmonics that are multiples of 2 are not harmful because they cancel out. The
same is true for 3rd order harmonics (3rd, 6th, 9th etc.). Because the power
supply is 3 phase, the third order harmonics cancel each other out in each phase
3. This leaves only the 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th etc. to discuss. The magnitude of the
harmonics produced by a VFD is greatest for the lower order harmonics (5th, 7th
and 11th) and drops quickly as you move into the higher order harmonics (13th
and greater).
 Harmonics can cause some disturbances in electrical systems. Higher order
harmonics can interfere with sensitive electronics and communications systems,
while lower order harmonics can cause overheating of motors, transformers, and
conductors. The opportunity for harmonics to be harmful, however, is
dependent upon the electrical system in which they are present and whether or
not any harmonic sensitive equipment is located on that same electrical system.

Multi-Pulse VFDs (Cancellation)
 There are a minimum of six rectifiers for a three phase AC VFD. There
can be more, however. Manufacturers offer 12, 18, 24, and 30 pulse
drives. A standard six-pulse drive has six rectifiers, a 12-pulse drive has
two sets of six rectifiers, an 18-pulse drive has three sets of six rectifiers
and so on. If the power connected to each set of rectifiers is phase
shifted, then some of the harmonics produced by one set of rectifiers
will be opposite in polarity from the harmonics produced by the other
set of rectifiers. The two wave forms effectively cancel each other out.
In order to use phase shifting, a special transformer with multiple
secondary windings must be used. For example, with a 12-pulse VFD, a
Delta/Delta-Wye transformer with each of the secondary phases shifted
by 30 degrees would be used.

 Application:
 Paper making machines.
 Centrifugal pumps.
 Cooling tower Fans.
 Chillers.
 Accuracy:
 Modern electrical VSDs can be used to accurately maintain the
speed of a driven machine to within ±0.1%, independent of
load, compared to the speed regulation possible with a
conventional fixed speed squirrel cage induction motor, where
the speed can vary by as much as 3% from no load to full load.

 Example:
 An everyday example, which illustrates the benefits of
variable speed control, is the motorcar. It has become
such an integral part of our lives that we seldom think
about the technology that it represents or that it is
simply a variable speed platform. It is used here to
illustrate how variable speed drives are used to
improve the speed, torque and energy performance of
a machine.
 Driver (Operator)
 The traffic conditions on the road (the process)

 In a city, it is necessary to obey speed
limits, avoid collisions and to start,
accelerate, decelerate and stop when
required. On the open road, the main
objective is to get to a destination safely
in the shortest time without exceeding
the speed limit.
 Two main controls; Accelerator & Brake

 A motorcar could not be safely operated in city
traffic or on the open road without these two
controls. The driver must continuously adjust
the fuel input to the engine (the drive) to
maintain a constant speed in spite of the
changes in the load, such as an uphill, downhill
or strong wind conditions. On other occasions
he may have to use the brake to adjust the
load and slow the vehicle down to standstill.

 Another important issue for most drivers is the
cost of fuel or the cost of energy consumption.
The speed is controlled via the accelerator that
controls the fuel input to the engine. By
adjusting the accelerator position, the energy
consumption is kept to a minimum and is
matched to the speed and load conditions.
Imagine the high fuel consumption of a vehicle
using a fixed accelerator setting and controlling
the speed by means of the brake position.

Terminology:
 Power is the rate at which work is being done by a
machine. In SI units, it is measured in watts. In rotating
machines, power can be calculated as the product of torque
and speed. Consequently, when a rotating machine such as a
motor car is at standstill, the output power is zero. This does
not mean that input power is zero! Even at standstill with
the engine running, there are a number of power losses that
manifest themselves as heat energy. Using SI units, power
and torque are related by the following very useful formula,
which is used extensively in VSD applications:

 Energy is the product of power and time and

represents the rate at which work is done over a
period of time. In SI units it is usually measured as kilo
Watt hours (kWh). In the example of the motorcar, the
fuel consumed over a period of time represents the
energy consumed.
Energy (kWh) = Power (kW)×Time (h)


Torque – Speed curve of a VFD:
 In most variable speed drive applications torque, power, and

speed are the most important parameters. Curves, which plot
torque against speed on a graph, are often used to illustrate
the performance of the VSD are called the Torque-speed
curves.
 The speed variable is usually plotted along one axis and the
torque variable along the other axis. Sometimes, power is
also plotted along the same axis as the torque.
 Since energy consumption is directly proportional to power,
energy depends on the product of torque and speed.

 For example, in a motorcar, depressing the accelerator
produces more torque that provides acceleration and
results in more speed, but more energy is required
and more fuel is consumed.
 Again using the motorcar as an example of a variable
speed drive, torque–speed curves can be used to
compare two alternative methods of speed control
and to illustrate the differences in energy consumption
between the two strategies:

 Speed controlled by using drive control: adjusting
the torque of the prime mover. In practice, this is done by
adjusting the fuel supplied to the engine, using the
accelerator for control, without using the brake. This is
analogous to using an electric variable speed drive to
control the flow of water through a centrifugal pump.
 Speed controlled by using load control: adjusting
the overall torque of the load. In practice, this could be
done by keeping a fixed accelerator setting and using the
brakes for speed control. This is analogous to controlling the
water flow through a centrifugal pump by throttling the
fluid upstream of the pump to increase the head.

 Using the motorcar as an example, the two solid curves in Figure
represent the drive torque output of the engine over the speed
range for two fuel control conditions:
• High fuel position – accelerator full down
• Lower fuel position – accelerator partially down
 The two dashed curves in the Figure 1.5 represent the load torque
changes over the speed range for two mechanical load conditions.
The mechanical load is mainly due to the wind resistance and road
friction, with the restraining torque of the brakes added.
• Wind & friction plus brake ON – high load torque
• Wind & friction plus brake OFF – low load torque



 Drive speed control, flow decreases along the curve A–B and to a point
on another Q–H curve. As the speed falls, the pressure/head reduces
mainly due to the reduction of friction in the pipes. A new stable flow of
Q1 m3/h is reached at point B and results in a head of H2.
 Throttle control, an upstream valve is partially closed to restrict the
flow. As the pressure/head is increased by the valve, the flow decreases
along the curve A–C. The new stable flow of Q1 m3/h is reached at
point C and results in a head of H1.
 From the well-known pump formula, the power consumed by the pump
is:
Pump Power (kW) = k × Flow (m3/h) × Head (m)
Pump Power (kW) = k × Q × H
Absorbed Energy (kWh) = k × Q × H × t

Functions of VFD
1. Start/Stop
2. Change Speed
3. Constant Speed
4. Limits
5. Ramping
6. Forward/Reverse
7. Save Energy

Functions of VFD: (Continued)
 This session covers the basic functions of an Variable

Frequency Drive (VFD) on a 3-phase AC (alternating
current) motor. Pictured above is an AC motor.
 The 3-phase motor pictured above is for commercial

use, but in your home, AC motors are used as well. A
vacuum cleaner uses an AC motor to clean the carpet;
a blender uses an AC motor to process food; and the
clothes dryer uses an AC motor to dry clothes. In each
of these examples, how is the AC motor controlled?
 When controlling motors in the home we control
them by applying AC power, and removing it, usually
through a switch. Obviously when power, 120 or 240
VAC, is applied to the motor it runs. With no power,
the motor stops.

 With the use of a Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) not only can
the AC motor be started and stopped as in the home, but more
sophisticated controls are accomplished. A VFD can send a
modulating signal to the motor, which allows a variety of speeds
to be delivered not just an ON/OFF signal. This variety of speeds
can be used to match the motor to a particular task. There are a
number of functions that the VFD accomplishes with commercial
3-phase AC motors, which are covered in the pages that follow.
 Motors in the home are almost always single-phase motors

which require additional electric parts to rotate the magnetic
field. Because of these extra parts, single-phase motors do NOT
operate correctly with a VFD.

To understand function
Of a VFD better, an
Example of cooling
Tower fan is used.
What must the fan do?

 The cooling tower in the picture above must maintain

a certain temperature perhaps 30°C (85°F) for the
condenser water temperature. Looking at this
example, see if you can identify some of the functions
that must be performed by the VFD, AC motor and
fans? In other words, what must the fans be able to
do?

 Function #1 – Start and Stop

START
 One function of the VFD is to start the fans. This could be done locally
off the keypad of the drive or remotely from a switch. This remote
switch could be a continuous single pole- double-throw (SPDT) switch
or a momentary (push button) switch.
STOP
 In the picture above, the SPDT switch is used to stop the pump. If
there are 2 separate push button switches, one to Start and one to
Stop, this arrangement is known as a 3-wire Start/Stop. If only one
switch, a continuous switch, is used, then it is referred to as a 2-wire
Start/Stop. In the picture above, since there is one switch, so this is a
2-wire Start/Stop.

 Function #2 – Change Speed

The VFD must be able to
Change the Reference, Hz. The
Reference could also be
temperature or PSI if a
transmitter were attached
to the VFD.

 The speed of the cooling tower fans must be variable to allow for a
slower speed when there is little demand for cooling and a higher
speed when more cooling is needed. This allows the operator to match
the speed of the fans to a particular demand. The setting of this speed
is known as the Reference. In most examples, reference refers to speed
in Hertz (Hz), maximum reference of 60Hz, and minimum reference of
6Hz for fans and 18Hz for pumps. It could also be used in regards to a
pressure setting, maximum reference of 100psi (690kPa), minimum
reference of 40psi (275kPa), if a transmitter were attached to the VFD.
 In the picture above, the display of an VFD, Speed in Hz is the
reference. The plus (+) key is used to increase the reference making the
fans go faster and the minus (-) is used to decrease the reference point
slowing the fans down.

 Function #3 – Maintain a Constant Speed

 Light load or heavy, the drive should maintain the same

speed.
 Function of the VFD is to maintain the speed of the fans

regardless of the temperature and humidity in the air. The
VFD automatically compensates the current and torque to
accommodate changes in the load.

 Function #4 – Limits
 Limits on current, torque,

speed, heat and voltage and
others protect the VFD &
motor.

 It is important that limits be placed on an VFD. Speed limits can be

placed in the program of the VFD so an operator can not go beyond
a maximum speed or less than a minimum speed. The maximum
speed of the fans should not exceed 60Hz, due to excessive power
consumption. Because of the possibility of overheating, fans should
not be run less than 6Hz. For the same reason as the fans, pumps
should not be run more than 60Hz. For lubrication purposes a
pump should have a minimum speed of at least 18Hz.
 If the fans gets stuck, there are torque limits that the VFD monitors
stopping the motor if they are exceeded. Current limits are also
important for protection of the drive and motor. In the picture
above the maximum reference is set to 60 Hz. Notice that in the
diagram there is a minimum reference of 6Hz.

 Function #5 – Ramping
 To reduce mechanical
wear, it is important to
control the acceleration,
(ramp up) and deceleration,
(ramp down).

 The VFD also ramps the fans up and ramps them down. When
the fans starts, acceleration, it is important that there is no
sudden jump to the reference speed, or there can be stress on
the gear boxes. In the example above, a ramp-up slowly
increases the speed from stopped or 0Hz up to the reference,
34Hz, over a certain amount of seconds perhaps 10. If this
ramp up is too short, the drive can trip on an over current
alarm or torque limit. If the VFD is tripped, the fans stop and it
might require an operator to manually reset the VFD. Many
VFDs have an automatic reset setting of 1 time to infinite
times. Ramping is very important for pumps, to avoid water
hammer.

 All ramp times are based on motor speed, 60Hz in Western

Hemisphere, 50Hz in the Eastern Hemisphere.

A ramp is also present on the stop side. This is referred to as a ramp

down or deceleration. It is important that the fans do NOT stopped
abruptly. A ramp-down of 60 seconds might be entered into the
program for this application. If the ramp is too short, the drive can
trip on over voltage.
All ramp times are based on the motor speed, 60Hz in the Western
Hemisphere. This means if the the ramp time is set for 60 seconds as
in the picture above, but the reference is set to 30Hz (1/2 of 60Hz), it
takes 30/60 x 60seocnds (½ the time) or 30 seconds to ramp up. In
the rest of the world 50Hz is used for the motor speed. Using the
same ramp up time (10)and reference (30), the motor then takes
30/50 X 60seconds or 36 seconds to ramp up to 30Hz. Calculations for
the ramp down time would be the same.

 Function #6 – Forward/Reverse

 FORWARD
One function of the VFD is to operate the motor
in a forward direction, to move the air through the
cooling tower and out the top. In its default (factory
set) condition the VFD is only allowed to go
forward. Some fans if driven backwards may have
problems.

 REVERSE
In the cooling tower example the
fans need to operate in Reverse in
order to complete a defrost cycle,
when the outside temperature is
very cool. Power going to the motor
must be changed to move the fans
backwards (Reverse). If there were
no VFD, 2 of the 3 leads of the
3-phase motor would be switched
in order for the motor to change
its direction and go backwards.
This switching of the motor leads is
done inside the VFD.

 Function #7 – Saving Energy
 The most important function

for the VFD with this fan
application is to save energy.

 In many applications, particularly involving fans and pumps, the major

function of the VFD is to save energy. Before VFDs, cooling tower fans
might have been cycled On at full power, when a temperature setting in
condenser water of 32°C (90°F), was reached. When the water cooled to
28°C (82°F) the fans were turned OFF coming back ON when the
temperature rose again to 32°C (90°F). This arrangement uses a great deal
of energy and the frequent cycling causes a great deal of wear on
equipment.
 A drive is placed on the fans, which slows the fans down to perhaps 30Hz
to constantly maintain the required condenser water temperature. The
fans speed up or slow down following demands. On the chart above, if
the fan is running at 30Hz, half of the full speed, assuming no friction
losses, the energy level is 1/8th the HP at full speed. This same energy
savings is seen on pump applications.

Control Arrangements for a VFD
1) Local or Hand Control
2) Remote or Auto Control
3) Multi-motor
4) Master/Slave
5) Closed Loop
6) Cascade Control – Fixed Stages
7) Cascade Control – Variable Stages
8) Build Automation System (BAS) - Enable
9) BAS – Enable and Reference
10) BAS – Serial Communications
Control Arrangements for a VFD: (Continued)
1) Local (Hand) Control

 Local or Hand control means controlling the
system through the keypad on the VFD.

 In the picture above, a VFD, motor and fan are operated from the
keypad on the front of the drive. Local (Hand) control of the VFD
means that operation of the VFD is completed strictly through the
keypad on the front of the drive, or Local Control Panel (LCP). An
operator monitors the readings and controls the VFD by using this
keypad. Even if the keypad, LCP is remotely mounted away from the
drive, maximum of 3m (10’), the control arrangement inside the
program of the VFD is still considered as LOCAL. If any line is labeled as
LOCAL in the program, think KEYPAD.

2) Remote Control

 Other arrangements are possible including remote signals. If

there is a problem with the fan and it must be stopped
immediately, it might be time consuming to run back to the
VFD to stop it. Stop switches can be placed at key positions
to stop the VFD, AC motor and fan. It is important that the
VFD accept these stop signals as well as other remote
signals. These remote control signals come in four types:
1) Digital Inputs (DI)
are 2-position (ON/OFF) signals sent into the VFD. These
commands check safeties, then tell the VFD to Start, to Stop, etc.
A DI requires 24Vdc which is supplied by a terminal on the drive.

2) Analog Inputs (AI)

are proportional or modulating signals sent into the VFD. These commands
tell the VFD what the reference speed should be or tell the VFD what a
feedback signal is doing such as static pressure. These signals are usually
from 0-10Vdc or 4-20mA.
3) Analog Outputs (AO)
are modulating signals sent by the VFD to a device such as a meter which
could display feedback, speed or current.
4) Digital/Relay Outputs (DO/RO)
are 2-position (ON/OFF) signals sent by the VFD to a device such as a light
to indicate an Alarm, or when the feedback signal has reached a certain limit.
Digital Outputs have power 24Vdc attached and Relay Outputs do not have
power, which are known as “dry” contacts.

3) Multi-Motor Operation
 One VFD is used to operate

4 separate fans. The VFD
must be able to handle the
maximum Current for the
4 motors.

 In the example above each of the 4 AC motors is the same size and has a
maximum current rating, Full Load Amps (FLA) of 15 amps. The VFD must
be sized for 60 amps. Note individual overload protection on each motor.

4) Master/Slave (Leader/Follower)
In the Master/Slave arrangement

a Master or Lead VFD monitors the
pressure sensor and operates a
single fan. It sends a corresponding
signal to another following supply
fan. Features of the VFD which
were restricted in the multi-motor
can be used in this arrangement.

In the picture above, the VFD on the first supply fan is the Master/Leader and it generates
a reference signal for one of its analog outputs (AO). The VFD on the second supply fan is
the Slave/Follower, and it monitors this 4-20mA reference signal from the master using
the slave’s analog input (AI).

 One VFD is selected as a Master or Leader drive. It is setup to send a reference signal
and ON/OFF commands to the Slave or Follower drive. In the example above, 2 fans
are used for Supply Air on a Variable Air Volume (VAV) system. The VFD operating the
top fan is considered the Master or Leader. It varies its speed to match the static
pressure needs in the supply duct. The bottom fan and VFD, follows the top supply
fan and is known as the slave or follower. The slave can match the speed to within
0.3Hz of the master, over the operating range from about 6Hz to 60Hz.
 Rather than always matching the speed of the master VFD, the slave VFD can operate
at a percentage of the reference. If a positive pressure needs to be maintained in a
zone, the slave VFD on a return fan can be slightly behind (-10% of reference) of the
master VFD on the supply fan. The supply fan always runs faster than the return fan
causing a positive pressure in the zone. In this last application using a volumetric
sensor comparing the CFM (L/s) from supply and return to control the return fan
would give a much greater accuracy than the Master/Slave arrangement.

5) Closed Loop/PID Control
In this arrangement a 4-20mA static

pressure transmitter is wired directly
into the VFD. This is a Feedback signal
and is always referred to as Closed
Loop. The VFD monitors its own signal
and result.

Up to this point most of the previous control arrangements have been closed
loop, which means that there is feedback signal monitoring the controlled
variable, going directly to the VFD. Closed Loop is used for stand alone
control. In the example above, the VFD monitors the signal coming from the
4-20mA static pressure sensor in the supply duct. In a variable air volume
(VAV) system it is important to maintain Static Pressure in the duct for proper
operation of the VAV boxes.
In all closed loop applications, additional parameters must be programmed.

These include a set point, and PID settings. In this application, the VFD is
constantly comparing the static pressure set point, 2.5”wc, (625 pascals) with
the actual feedback value coming from the pressure transmitter. The VFD
modulates the speed of the supply fan to maintain that pressure.

 Controller action is one of the parameters that must be checked

in the VFD. There are 2 selections which are as follows:
Normal Control (Reverse Acting)
which increases the speed of the fan when the signal
decreases from the pressure sensor, as in the example
above.
Inverse Control (Direct Acting)

increases the speed of the fan when the signal increases
from the sensor
There is always a difference between the set point and the actual feedback pressure.
This is referred to as Offset, “off the set point” or error. PID settings attempt to
reduce this error.
“P” stands for Proportional Gain which can be considered as a multiplier of the error.
The higher the gain the more accurate, but if it is set too high, the control can
become unstable and jittery. With too high of a gain setting, the VFD oscillates
between maximum speed and minimum speed, “hunting” for the correct speed. The
gain must be high enough to be sensitive but not too high to cause hunting. Each
application is different, but a proper starting setting for pumps is 4.0 and 2.0 for fans.
“I” stands for Integral which looks at the error over a certain amount of time. The
lower the number the more frequently it checks the error. If the I setting is too low,
the motor again appears to be hunting. Based on most applications, a pump has its I
setting for 20 seconds and 30 seconds for fans.
 “D” stands for derivative which, if used, compensates for momentary changes in the load. In
most HVAC applications, this parameter is not used, keeping it OFF.

8) Building Automation Enable
Building Automation Systems

(BAS) coordinate the use of
the VFD with numerous other
schedules and commands.
In the picture above, a local
Direct Digital Controller (DDC)
enables/disables the VFD
by use of a Digital Output.

10) Serial Communications

Parts & Operation of a VFD
1. VFD part of a Larger System

2. Rectifier
3. Soft Charge Circuit
4. Intermediate Circuit (DC Link)
5. Brake Circuit
6. Inverter
7. Pulse Width Modulation
8. Control & Regulation Section
Parts & Operation of a VFD: (Continued)
1. VFD in a Larger System

 This section covers the parts and operation of the Variable Frequency Drive (VFD).
It is important to keep in mind that the Drive is just one part of a system. In the
diagram above, notice the disconnect switch, fuses, bypass switch, thermal
overloads, BAS, etc. all play an important part in making an application work
correctly.
 Inside the VFD there are 4 major sections: rectifier, intermediate circuit (DC Link),
inverter and control/regulation. This fourth section, control and regulation,
interfaces with the other 3 sections.
 In very general terms the operation of the drive is as follows. Power first goes into
the rectifier, where the 3-phase AC is converted into a rippling DC voltage. The
intermediate circuits then smoothens and holds the DC Voltage at a constant level
or energy source for the inverter. The last section, the inverter, uses the DC
voltage to pulse the motor with varying levels of voltage and current depending
upon the control circuit. The pattern of the pulses going to the motor makes it
appear similar to an AC sinusoidal waveform.

2) Rectifier Section

 The 3-phase AC voltage goes into the rectifier section which is made up of a group of gated
diodes (silicon rectifiers or SCRs). In most VFDs, these diodes are in a group of 6 as diagramed
above. One VFD manufacturer has stressed that there should be more sets of diodes, 12, 18,
even 24.
 Diodes (D1 through D6) allow current to flow only in one direction when enabled by the gate
signal. In this diagram, the AC power on L1 goes into Diodes D1 and D2. Because of the position
of these diodes, current flow can only go up. The D1 diode conducts when the AC is positive
and D2 conducts when the AC goes negative. This drives the top line (+) more positive and the
bottom line (-) more negative. Diodes D3 and D4 convert L2 power to DC and Diodes D5 and D6
convert L3. A volt ohmmeter or VOM can be used to measure this DC voltage. In this type of
circuit, the DC voltage is 1.35 times the AC line voltage.
If 240 Vac is coming in, 324 Vdc is generated.
If 380 Vac is coming in, 513 Vdc is generated.
If 460 Vac is the line voltage, 621 Vdc is generated.
If 575 Vac is the line voltage, 776 Vdc is generated.
 Because of line (power coming in) and load (power to the motor) changes, the DC Voltage level
is constantly moving above and below this expected value.


3) Soft Charge Circuit

 On larger drives, 22 – 450kW (30 – 600Hp), a part of the rectifier section is known as the
soft charge circuit, which is used to power up the drive. With this circuit, when power is
applied, the inrush of current is restricted going to the large capacitors in the DC Link, so
that they may charge up slowly (within a couple of seconds). If this circuit was absent, line
fuses would be blown every time the VFD was started. The soft charge circuit on some of
the VFDs has a resistor or two in line with the current to slowly allow charging of the
capacitors. This current resistor even has its own safety, a thermal switch, which shorts out
if the current rush is too high in the soft charge circuit. The shorted thermal switch blows
fuses on the soft charge circuit preventing the drive from starting.
 Once main power is applied to the drive, the SCRs in the main rectifier section remain off.
The much smaller rectifier section in the soft charge circuit starts, applying DC power
through the current resistors charging up the capacitors in the DC Link. When these
capacitors are charged to the DC voltage minimum value, the control section starts the
firing of the SCRs in the main rectifier. Because of the amp draw through the current
resistors in the soft charge circuit, time is needed to cool them off, so the 22 – 450kW (30 -
600 Hp) drives are limited to 2 start per minute.



4) Intermediate Circuit (DC Link)

 The Intermediate Circuit also known as a DC Link, can be seen as a power storage
facility for the next section, the inverter section. There are 2 major components
to the DC Link section, capacitors and coils. In the diagram above only one
capacitor is shown but it is always a series of capacitors. Intermediate section
always uses DC coils also known as DC Line Reactors or DC chokes. For cost
considerations, most other VFD manufacturers do not offer these DC Line
Reactors as standard equipment. one is the ability to reduce harmonic noise
(interference) by 40% and the other is the ability to ride through a temporary
loss of power. This allows this drive to avoid numerous nuisance shut downs.
 In the diagram above, notice that the rippled DC voltage coming in has now been
filtered to a relatively constant voltage. Remember that this DC Link Voltage is
1.35 times the input voltage. The value of the DC Link voltage can be read from
the display on the front of the drive. When ever working around the drive always
be careful and give it a healthy respect. The largest drive produces 620Vdc at 750
A.

5) Brake Circuit

 This Brake Option, also known as Dynamic Braking, is used

with devices that need to stop or change directions quickly,
such as conveyors, hoists and centrifuges. On drives that have
the brake option, an additional IGBT transistor is used to
remove extra power coming back into the drive when the
motor, which has a large inertia, is stopping or changing
direction. The only HVAC related application that might use
dynamic braking is for some fans for boiler combustion. This
option is not required for the vast majority of HVAC
applications.

6) Inverter Section

 The next part of the VFD is the Inverter section. This section takes
the DC voltage from the intermediate section and, with the help
of the control section, fires each set of IGBT (Insulated Gate
Bipolar Transistors) to the U, V and W terminals of the motor. This
firing of the IGBTs is known as Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
and is described in the next couple of slides.
 Notice in the diagram above that sensors monitor the current

going to each terminal of the 3-phase motor. There are some
manufacturers, who in an attempt to cut costs, only have 2
sensors and guess on the output to the 3rd. There are others that
only monitor the outputs when the first run command is given.

 Another component that manufacturer include are,

the motor coils, on any drive larger than 18.5kW
(25Hp). These coils smooth the waveform going to
the motor. The smoother the waveform the less heat
is generated at the motor and the longer the motor
lasts.

 Motor coils, current sensors and motor terminals are located

in the lower right corner of the 450kW (600Hp) drive.


 The IGBTs are mounted on the heatsinks behind the

capacitors in the middle of the 450kW (600Hp) drive.
The picture on the right shows two IGBTs with the
circuit card which is used to help control them, know
as a snubber card. The picture on the left shows the
IGBTs without the snubber card. The correct
mounting pattern for the 6 screws (done in a rotating
manner) on each is critical, so that there is proper
contact between the IGBT and the heatsink.

7) Pulse Width Modulation

 In the diagram above, a close up view of the

waveform that goes to the motor shows the switching
frequency of the IGBTs. The switching-pattern shown
above is known as pulse width modulation or PWM.
As the length of time is increased for the IGBT to be
ON and then OFF, the motor responds to it as a
sinusoidal waveform. The positive IGBT fires first in
the diagram followed by its negative counterpart.
Only one motor terminal (U) is shown but the same
type of activity would appear on V and W.

 In the diagram above only 7 pulses are shown on each

side, but actually 1750 pulses or more should be shown.
This PWM frequency can vary from 3.5KHz to 15 kHz,
which means it is audible. It is also known as the Carrier
Frequency, which is Variable by most VFD
manufacturers. A low carrier frequency can have an
annoying noise, but a higher carrier frequency generates
more heat in the drive and motor. If the carrier
frequency noise is too loud particularly with supply fans,
LC filters can be placed between the VFD and motor and
the noise stops at this filter.
8) Control & Regulation:

 The control section coordinates and regulates signals inside the drive.
This is where numerous calculations are completed to properly switch
the IGBTs. This control section uses Vector technology, which separates
the torque producing current from the magnetizing current. In the
diagram above the current going to the AC motor is being monitored.
 The VFD has a special program, algorithm, called Automatic Motor
Adaptation (AMA), which determines the electrical parameters for the
connected motor while the motor is at a standstill. Many competitors
must decouple and spin the motor for tuning. Because the AMA
measures the resistance and reactance of the motor’s stator
establishing a motor model, the magnetizing current can be calculated.
This motor model is used to calculate the slip and load compensation.

 The control section uses the frequency (f), voltage (V)

and phase angle (theta) to control the inverter. This
means that the torque producing current can be
controlled more accurately. This robust sensor-less
regulation scheme is called Voltage Vector Control
(VVC+).

Application Terminology
1. Starting Torque – HO, Breakaway, NO

2. Open or Closed Loops
3. Closed Loop & PID – Action, Set point, Offset,
Proportional, Integral, Derivative
4. Different Types of VFDs

Application Terminology: (Continued)
1. Starting Torque
a) High Overload (HO)
• High Overload allows 160% starting current for 1 min.
• Most CT applications require High Overload.
• If drive exceeds 160% or 1 minute, VFD trips.
b) Breakaway Torque
• High Overload has a breakaway torque that allows 180%
starting current for 0.5 seconds.
• If drive exceeds 180% or 0.5 seconds, VFD trips.

c) Normal Overload (NO)

• Normal Overload has a starting torque that allows
110% starting current for 1 minute.

2. Open or Closed Loop

• Open Loop control does NOT have a direct feedback signal.
• Closed Loop has a direct feedback signal coming into the VFD.

• Open Loop

 In the example above, a static pressure sensor is wired to a Direct Digital

Controller (DDC). Because the feedback signal, pressure, goes to the
Controller, a closed loop must be setup in it to control the static pressure.
This closed loop inside the Controller monitors the pressure comparing it
against a set point and then calculates a reference signal. The Controller
then sends this reference signal to the VFD for proper modulation of the fan.
 The reference signal is sent to the VFD, which in turn controls the motor and
fan. In this example, the VFD is programmed for Open Loop and it receives a
reference command from the Controller. If the pressure sensor were wired
directly into the VFD, then the drive would need to be programmed for
Closed Loop in order to have proper control of the fan.
 The system is a closed loop system because it senses its own action, its
feedback, but because the feedback signal does not go directly to it, the VFD
is programmed for open loop.

• Closed Loop

 Closed Loop is where the controller inside the VFD can be used to
modulate the speed of a motor to maintain a process. It is the job of
the sensor or transmitter to measure a variable, in the example
above, this is static pressure. This sensor sends a signal (usually a 4-
20mA) to the controller over a particular range, in this example from
0” to 5”wc.
 The sensor is wired to the current input of the VFD, the controller.
This signal is programmed in the VFD as the feedback signal. This
feedback signal must be given engineering units, from our example,
“inches of water column (“wc)” or “Pascals”. Inside the VFD the
feedback signal must also be given the range that matches the sensor.
When the sensor sees 4mA it is 0”wc (0 Pascals) and when the sensor
sees 20mA, the reading is 5”wc (1250 Pascals).

 The VFD, controller, has a set point, action and PID settings
(explained later) to calculate the response necessary to
maintain the desired value seen at the sensor. The VFD sends
a signal to the fan to speed up or slow down to maintain a
certain level. The fan, controlled device, responds to match
the signal from the VFD, controller. It speeds up when the
level of the static pressure decreases and slows down when
the level of the static pressure is too high.

3. a) Control Action
• Normal Control – incoming signal increases; VFD speed

decreases.
• Inverse Control – incoming signal increases; VFD speed
increases.

3. b) Set point, Error & Gain

 Set point is the desired value or reference of the
controlled variable for a closed loop application. In
controlling static pressure, shown above, 2.00”wc
(500pa) is the desired set point or reference.
 Error is a difference between the set point, 2.00”wc
(500pa) and the actual feedback pressure, 1.85”wc
(462pa) for this system. This difference is also known as
Offset (or off the set point).

PID Gain:
 Proportional Gain is multiplied by the error to create an output.
The larger the proportional gain, the larger the output change for a
given error. If the proportional gain is too small (0.01) this
multiplier times the error has no effect on the speed of the VFD. If
the proportional gain is too large (3.00 or higher) the system can
become unstable, modulating between minimum speed and
maximum speed which is called “hunting”. A good starting place
for the Proportional Gain is about 1.00 but changes depending on
the application. If Proportional Gain is only used, without I or D
(explained on the next slide), the output is relatively close to set
point but there is always an error.

Integral Gain is based on the history of the error. The

integral function maintains a running total of the error and
creates an output based on this total. The lower the number
used for the integral gain the more frequently the error is
checked and the larger its influence. If the integral time is too
low (less than 5 seconds), the system can become unstable and
starts to hunt. A good place to start is 10 seconds, but again this
can vary based on the application. Integral gain eliminates the
steady error inherent to proportional control. As pictured
above, integral gain adds overshoot every time the load
changes, but eventually settles close to set point. Integral is
used frequently in HVAC applications.

 Derivative Gain or differential is based on the rate of

change of the error. It is used to limit overshoot and dampen
system oscillation. The larger the derivative time, the larger
the influence. If the derivative time is too large, the system
becomes unstable. Derivative is very sensitive to noise on the
feedback signal and historically seldom used in HVAC closed
loop systems.

Proportional Gain contributes to the output in a direct relationship

to the error between the feedback and set point.
Integral contributes to the output based on the history of the error.
Derivative contributes to the output based on the rate of change to
the error.
Set point is the desired value for the variable being controlled.
Feedback is the actual value of the variable being controlled.
Error (offset) is the difference between the set point and feedback
Hunting is an unstable condition which causes the speed of the
motor to continuously vary from maximum to minimum.

Power Input Terminology
When connecting a VFD to a system, there are 3 separate connections that are
made: incoming power, motor wiring and control wiring.
1. Protecting the VFD
a. Switching on the Input
b. Surge/Sag
c. Transients – Spikes
d. Phase Balancing
e. Single Phase
f. Fuses, connectors and voltages
2. Protecting the Supply Line
a. Radio Frequency Interference (RFI)
b. Harmonics
c. Managing Harmonic Distortion

Power Input Terminology: (Continued)
1) Protecting the VFD

 The first section covers the protection of the VFD from the
changes in incoming power. The first item covered is the
switching of power coming into the drive. There can also be
Surges and Sags in the incoming AC power. If these surges are
too high, or the sags are too low, the VFD shuts down for its
own protection. There must also be protection against
transients or spikes in the incoming power. Another item to be
covered is a Phase Imbalance between the 3 phases of power
coming into the drive. The last item to be covered are Fuses,
connectors and different voltages which might be
encountered.

a) Switching on the Input
 Maximum switching on input is 2 times per minute

 Soft Charge circuit heats up with excessive starts, and charging and
discharging of the capacitors needs to be limited.

b) Surge and Sag
 Surge is an incoming voltage

above its expected level
 Sag is an incoming voltage
below its expected level

c) Transients and Spikes

d) Phase Imbalance

 Voltage Imbalance on one of the Phases

causes excessive stress on filter capacitors, so
the VFD shuts down and sends out an alarm.
 The closer to maximum load of the VFD the

more sensitive it becomes to an incoming
voltage imbalance.

e) Single Phase Input
 Some small VFDs are designed for single phase

 It is NOT recommended to place single phase on a 3-phase only - VFD
 Reduces life of filtering capacitors

f) Fuses, Connectors and Voltages
 Fuses
 No Power factor correction capacitors

2) Protecting the Supply Line
 •Voltage and current distortions caused by the VFD can effect in-coming
power.
 High Noise above 450kHz is called Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) and
low noise below 3kHz is called Harmonics.

 RFI (frequencies of 450kHz and higher) can travel

through the wires and can also be radiated through
the air. Many of these problems can be corrected by
using RFI filters in the drives and shielded (screened)
cable
 Harmonics are the noise at low frequencies, less that
3kHz, which are only generated through the wires
and never radiated through the air..

a) Radio Frequency Interference (RFI)


b) Harmonic Distortion
 Multiples, mainly the 5th and the 7th harmonics of the fundamental
sine wave (60 Hz), caused by the switching current flow through the
VFD’s input rectifiers, causes interference in the incoming power.
 Harmonic Current Distortion increases the

RMS current and can result in overheating of
the supply transformer and cables.
 Harmonic Voltage Distortion can interfere with
other equipment attached to the same line.
 Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) at the point
of common coupling is discussed in IEEE 5-19.

c) Managing Harmonic Distortion

 Analyze system to determine whether harmonic distortion is an issue.
 If it is an issue:
1) Redistribute Sensitive Loads
2) Rewire as Virtual 12 Pulse
3) Add Remedial Hardware
• Line Reactors
• Filters
• Isolation Transformers

• Input Line Reactor

• DC Inductors

• Isolation Transformers
• Expensive option

How To Maintain a VFD
 VFD is basically a computer and power supply. And
the same safety and equipment precautions you’d
apply to a computer and to a power supply apply
here. VFD maintenance requirements fall into three
basic categories:
1) keep it clean;
2) keep it dry; and
3) keep the connections tight.

How To Maintain a VFD: (Continued)
1) Keep it Clean
 Most VFDs fall into the NEMA 1 category (side vents
for cooling air flow) or NEMA 12 category (sealed,
dust-tight enclosure). Drives that fall in the NEMA 1
category are susceptible to dust contamination. Dust
on VFD hardware can cause a lack of air flow,
resulting in diminished performance from heat sinks
and circulating fans (Photo 1).


 Dust on an electronic device can cause malfunction or

even failure. Dust absorbs moisture, which also
contributes to failure. Periodically spraying air through
the heat sink fan is a good PM measure. Discharging
compressed air into a VFD is a viable option in some
environments, but typical plant air contains oil and
water. To use compressed air for cooling, you must use
air that is oil-free and dry or you are likely to do more
harm than good. That requires a specialized, dedicated,
and expensive air supply. And you still run the risk of
generating electrostatic charges (ESD).
 A non-static generating spray or a reverse-

operated ESD vacuum will reduce static build-
up. Common plastics are prime generators of
static electricity. The material in ESD vacuum
cases and fans is a special, non-static
generating plastic. These vacuums, and cans of
non-static generating compressed air, are
available through companies that specialize in
static control equipment.
2) Keep it Dry
 In Photo 2 you can see what happened to a control

board periodically subjected to a moist environment.
Initially, this VFD was wall-mounted in a clean, dry
area of a mechanical room and moisture was not a
problem. However, as is often the case, a well
meaning modification led to problems.


 In this example, an area of the building required a

dehumidifier close to the mechanical room. Since
wall space was available above the VFD, this is where
the dehumidifier went. Unfortunately, the VFD was a
NEMA 1 enclosure style (side vents and no seal
around the cover). The obvious result was water
dripping from the dehumidifier into the drive. In six
months, the VFD accumulated enough water to
produce circuit board corrosion.

 What about condensation? Some VFD manufacturers

included a type of “condensation protection” on earlier
product versions. When the mercury dipped below 32
degrees Fahrenheit, the software logic would not allow
the drive to start. VFDs seldom offer this protection
today. If you operate the VFD all day every day, the
normal radiant heat from the heat sink should prevent
condensation. Unless the unit is in continuous operation,
use a NEMA 12 enclosure and thermostatically controlled
space heater if you locate it where condensation is likely.

3) Keep Connections Tight

 While this sounds basic, checking connections is a
step many people miss or do incorrectly - and the
requirement applies even in clean rooms. Heat
cycles and mechanical vibration can lead to sub-
standard connections, as can standard PM
practices. Re-torquing screws is not a good idea,
and further tightening an already tight
connection can ruin the connection (see Sidebar).


 Bad connections eventually lead to arcing. Arcing at

the VFD input could result in nuisance over voltage
faults, clearing of input fuses, or damage to
protective components. Arcing at the VFD output
could result in over-current faults, or even damage to
the power components. Photos 3 and 4 show what
can happen.

Thanks
for
your
Patience

VFD

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

VFD

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Variable Frequency

Prepared & Presented By:

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 3

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 4

 So the speed control of AC motors is complicated by the fact

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 5

 The direction of rotation of the AC motor can be reversed by

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 6

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 7

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 8

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 9

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 10

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 11

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 12

 To match the speed of the drive to

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 13

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 14

 Motors draw reactive current to support their magnetic fields in order to

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 15

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 16

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 17

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 18

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 19

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 20

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 21

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 22

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 23

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 24

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 25

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 26

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 27

 Energy is the product of power and time and

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 28

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 29

 In most variable speed drive applications torque, power, and

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 30

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 31

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 32

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 33

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 34

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 35

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 36

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 37

 This session covers the basic functions of an Variable

 The 3-phase motor pictured above is for commercial

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 39

 Motors in the home are almost always single-phase motors

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 40

What must the fan do?

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 41

 The cooling tower in the picture above must maintain

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 42

 Function #1 – Start and Stop

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 43

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 44

 Function #2 – Change Speed

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 45

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 46

 Function #3 – Maintain a Constant Speed

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 47

 Light load or heavy, the drive should maintain the same

 Function of the VFD is to maintain the speed of the fans

Variable Frequency Drive (By SUD) 48