Inorganic Chemistry

Prepared By: Sherwin P. Gammad, RMT, LPT, MSPH

Chapter 1: Introduction
Scientific Notation
• Scientific notation is a combination of two numbers.
• The first number is a decimal number between 1 and 10. This is followed
by mulitiplication sign (x). The second number is a power of 10.
• The following are examples:
• 45,000=4.5 x10 4
• 9562157=9.562157x106
• 0.00075=7.5 x 10 -4
• 0.000251=2.51x10-4
• 100000=1x10 6
 Measurement
• The Systeme International d Unites or System International of Units is
adopted all over the world.
• It simple and convenient to use since all units are based on multiples
of 10.
• The SI system is a modified form of the metric system
Prefix Symbol Multiplier
exa E 10 18
peta P 10 15
tera T 10 12
giga G 10 9
mega M 10 6
kilo k 10 3
hecto h 10 2 (1)
deka da 10 1
deci d 10 -1
centi c 10 -2
milli m 10 -3
micro u 10 -6
nano n 10 -9
pico p 10 -12 (2)
femto f 10 -15
atto a 10- -18 (3)
Units of Measurement
Precision and Accuracy
• Accuracy-how close the measurements are to the true value
• Example:
Data True value: 1.0 g/mL
1st trial=0.980 g/mL
2nd trial=1.020 g/mL
3rd trial=0.970 g/ mL
Average=0.990 g/mL
%error
%error=difference between two values/true valuex100%
=0.01/1.0x100=1%
• Precision-refers to the degree to which successive measurements
agree with each other
• Example A:
• 1st trial: 49.05 cm
• 2nd trial: 49.01 cm
• 3rd trial: 48.95 cm
• Example B:
• 1st trial: 20.45 cm
• 2nd trial: 50.76 cm
• 3rd trial: 60.95 cm
• Exercise:
• The density of the mercury is 13.35 g/cm3. experimental results
shows the following data:
• 10.45 g/cm3
• 16.56 g/cm3
• 15.75 g/cm3
• 12.35 g/cm3
• Can the measurement be described as accurate? Precise?
Significant figures
• In dealing with numbers obtained from measurements, the following
rules apply:
• 1. all nonzero digits are significant
• 2. zeros between nonzero digits are significant
• 3. zeros to the right of a decimal are significant
• 4. zeros to the left of nonzero digits are not significant but are used to
indicate the position of the decimal point
• 5. when a number ends in zeros, the zeros are not significant
 Number No. of Significant Figures

1.3 2
1.004 4
295.00 5
0.023 or 2.3 x 10 -2 2
12000 2
Dimensional Analysis
• The following equation can help you dimensional analysis.
• Unit sought for= unit given x conversion factor
• Example:
• 1. the length of a piece of wood is 13.25 cm. express this in kilometers
• X=13.25 cm(1m/10 2 cm)(1km/103m)
• =13.25/10 5km=1.325 x 10 -4
CHAPTER 2: MATTER
Physical State of Matter
• Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass.
• All matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms.
• Physical state includes: Solid, Liquid and Gases.
Phase Changes
• Solid –Liquid
• Liquid –Gas
• Liquid-Solid
Example:
ICE
Water Vapor
• Sample problem: Identify each of the ff characteristics as solid, liquid
and gas.
• 1. maintains its own volume but takes the shape of the container
• 2. Has a definite arrangement of particles
• 3. Has little or no attraction between particles
• 4. A substance that has particles that are strongly attracted to each
other
• 5. A substance that does not have a definite volume nor definite
shape
 Chemical Changes Physical Changes

Rusting of nail Setting of a jelly

Baking a cake Melting butter
Fermentation of rice washing Boiling water
Tarnishing of a silver spoon Sawing a board in half
Dissolving antacid in water Breaking a glass
Heterogeneous and Homogeneous

• Heterogeneous materials-composed of different properties or phases

• Homogeneous- properties of one part are identical with the
properties of all the other part.
Element
• Element –are fundamental substances from which all other things are
built. They cant be broken into simpler substances.
• Many elements were named after planets, famous people, colors,
minerals, geographic locations and mythological figures.
• Uranium-planet Uranus
• Curium-scientist marie curie
• Iodine-greek word ioeides
• Magnesium-magnesia (a mineral)
 Some element and Their Symbols
Element Symbol Element Symbol
Aluminum Al Magnesium Mg
Argon Ar Manganese Mn
Arsenic As Neon Ne
Barium Ba Nitrogen N
Calcium Ca Oxygen O
Carbon C Phosphorus Ph
Chloride Cl Platinum P
Chromium Cr Radium Ra
Cobalt Co Silicon Si
Fluorine F Strontium S
Helium He Sulfur S
Hydrogen H Uranium U
Litium Li Zinc Zn
 Elements with their Irregular symbols
Elements Symbol Origin
Antimony Sb Stibium
Copper Cu Cuprum
Gold Au Aurum
Iron Fe Ferrum
Lead Pb Plumbum
Merury Hg Hydrargyrum (4)
Potassium K Kalium (5)
Silver Ag Argentum
Sodium Na Natrium (6)
Tin Sn Stannum
Tungsten W wolfram
 Properties of Metals and Non Metals
Metals
Hard, Dense, Solid (except mercury)
Strong (can hold heavy loads without
breaking)
Shiny and ca be polished
Malleable and ductile
Sonorous ( ringing sound can be heard
when strike)
Can conduct heat and electricity
Usually have high melting points
Have high tensile strengths
Have high densities
Non Metals
Some are gases, liquids, or solids: less
dense, and softer (except diamond)
Dull, cannot be polished
Brittle
Not sonorous
Insulators (except graphite)
Have low melting point
Have low tensile strengths
Have low densities
Physical Properties

• Extensive properties- depend on the amount of material like mass,

length and volume
• Intensive properties- depend on the quality of the material like odor,
color, sg, solubility, density, BP, MP, and electrical conductivity.
 Densities of Common Substances
Substance Density (g/mL)
Aluminum 2.7
Brass 8.6
Copper 8.9
Cork 0.22
Diamond 3.5
Gold 19.3
Ice 0.917
Iron 7.9
Lead 11.3
Magnesium 1.74
Compounds
• Compounds are mixture of two substances.
• It cannot be separate into other substances by physical methods and
the elements in it are always combined in fixed proportions.
IMPORTANT ELEMENYS IN THE BODY

ELEMENT SYMBOL WHERE FOUND

Oxygen O Protiens, carbohydrates, fats
Carbon C Protiens, carbohydrates, fats
Hydrogen H Protiens, carbohydrates, fats, water
Nitrogen N Proteins, DNA, RNA
Calcium Ca Bones Teeth
Sulfur S Some amino acids
Potassium K Inside cells
chlorine Cl Outside cells
Methods of Separating Mixtures
• Filtration-the process of separating the insoluble solid from the liquid
substance by allowing the liquid to pass through porous material.
• Mechanical separation-involves the use of forceps, sieves, and other
similar tools.
• Flotation-a method in which some solids of a suspension mixture are
allowed to settle and the less dense material is poured off. Eg. Panning of
gold
• Centrifugation-speeds up the settling of the precipitate. The centripetal
force developed during the rotation brings the precipitate to the bottom
of the tube. The supernatant liquid or centrifugate is poured off.
• Distillation-a process that involves the evaporation and condensation
of volatile liquid.
• Fractional crystallization-employs the lowering of temperature so
that the more insoluble component crystallizes out first. The solid is
removed by filtration. The remaining mother liquor is subjected to a
further lowering of temperature. This lowering of temperature and
consequent filtration are repeated until no more solid crystallizes.
• Chromatography-use the difference in degree to which substances
are absorbed on the surface of an inert substances.
Laws of Chemical Combination
• Law of conservation of mass-states that when an ordinary chemical
reaction occurs, there is no detectable change in the masses of the
substances involved before and after the reaction. Thus masses of the
reactants=masses of the products
• Law of definite composition/ definite proportion-a given compound
always shows a fixed proportion. A chemical compound always
contains the same element in the same percentages by mass. When
two elements combine to form a given compound , they always do so
in fixed proportion.
 LAW OF DEFINITE COMPOSITION

TRIAL MASS OF C (g) MASS OF O2 (G) MASS OF CO2 (g)

1 2.0 5.34 7.34

2 15.0 40.05 55.05
3 5.0 13.36 18.36
• Finding the percentage of carbon and oxygen:
• % C= mass c/massco2x100
• % O=mass o/mass co2
• These shows that the percentage of carbon in CO2 is 27.2 and O is
72.8 which are definite.
• Law of multiple proportions-this states that when two elements
combine to form more than one compound, the masses of one
element which combine with a fixed mass of the other element are in
a ration of small whole numbers such as 2:1, 1:1, 2:3 etc.
Chapter 3: Atomic Theory
The Beginning
• Thales of Miletus-all things came from water and the earth itself floats on
water.
• Leucippus-a greek Philosopher, conceived the idea of invisible units called
atoms (meaning “uncut”)
• democritus- believed that matter consisted of tiny particles called atomos
and that the infinite variety of observable things could be explained by the
combinations of different sizes and shapes of these particles.
• Empedocles-proposed that matter is made up of four elements (earth,
water, air and fire)
• Aristotle (384-322 BC)-rejected the idea of the atomism of matter, he
believed that there is no limit to subdividing matter. Dividing matter in small
bits can go on infinitely with each piece getting smaller and smaller
John Daltons Atomic Theory
• The idea of an atom began to be of operational significance when
John Dalton (1766-1844), an English scientist, showed that this could
explain the existing laws of chemical combinations
• He chose the word atom to express the idea of individuality
• On of the fathers of modern physical science
• Daltons postulate:
• A. matter is made up of extremely small indestructible particles called
atoms.
• B. all atoms of a given element are alike
• C. atoms enter into combination with other atoms to form
compounds but remain unchanged during ordinary chemical reactions
• D. atoms can combine in simple numerical ratios such as 1:1, 1:2, 2:3
and so on
Cathode Rays
• William Crookes (1832-1919), an English chemist, using a vacuum
discharge tube called crookes tube, showed that there was some kind
of matter coming from the cathode (negative electrode) that caused
the greenish glow fro the glass in the anode (positive electrode).
• Cathode exhibits the following properties:
• 1. Cathode rays are emitted from the cathode when electric current is
passed I an evacuated tube
• 2. the rays travel in a straight line; the rays cast a shadow if small
objects are placed in the discharged tube
• The cathode rays, upon striking a glass or other material, cause it to
fluoresce
• The cathode rays bear a negative charge. This is shown by the fact
that they are attracted toward positively charged objects held outside
the tube.
Canal Rays (positive rays)
• Eugen Goldstein ( 1850-1930), A German physicist known for his work
on electrical phenomena in gases, discovered new particles which he
called canal rays.
• The name arose from the fact that the rays are attracted to the
cathode (-) and pass through the holes or canals in the cathode.
• These particles are positively charged and are massive.
• Canal rays are now called ions.
Natural Radioactivity
• Henri Becquerel(1852-1908)-a French physicist, tried to associate X
rays with fluorescent materials.
• Pierre and Marie Curie-worked on pitch blende, a uranium core. They
succeeded in isolating polonium and radium. These elements are
sources of radiation, were termed radioactive substcances.
• Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937)-a British physicist, completely
unraveled the nature of Becquerel rays. He discovered with his
coworkers that rays has three types: alpha (positively charged), beta
(negatively charged), gamma (uncharged particles)
Nuclear Model of an Atom
• Rutherfords discovery gave birth to the nuclear atom. He won a noble
prize in 1908 for his discovery of the nucleus.
• There is a tiny, positive, central core called the nucleus where the
mass of the atom is concentrated.
Structure of the nucleus
• Rutherford also established that the positive charge is due to the
presence of a fundamental particle called proton.
• The atomic number Z of the element is the number of protons in the
nucleus. Since an atom is electrically neutral, then the number of
protons must be equal to the number of electrons.
• James Chadwick (1891-1974)-a british physicist discovered neutron.
 +FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES OF AN ATOM

Name of Particle Charge Mass (u)

Electron -1 0.00055
Proton +1 1.00723
Neutron 0 1.00866
Isotopes
• Studies on atoms showed that atoms of the same element have
different masses. Such species are called isotopes.
• Refer to the ff. example 1H, 2H, 3H.
• They have different masses; thus they also differ in the number of
neutrons. The variation in the number of neutrons does not change
the identity of the element.
• Isotopes have found extensive application in medicine, Cobalt 60 is
used in cancer therapy, while iodine 121 is used in goiter therapy.
Chapter 4: Electrons in Atom
MODERN VIEW OF THE ATOM

SUBLEVELS AND CAPACITY OF EACH MAIN ENERGY LEVEL

Principal Number of Identity of Number of Maximum
Quantum Sublevels Sublevels orbitals Number of
Number or Main (n2) Electrons (2n2)
Energy Level (n)

1 1 1s 1 2
2 2 2s (10) 4 8
2p
3 3 3s 9 18
3p(11)
3d (12)

4 4 4s 16 32
4p
4d
4f
Chapter 5: The Periodic Table
History of the Periodic Table
• 1871-the German chemist, Johanne W. Dobereiner showed that the
atomic mass of strontium lies midway between those of calcium and
barium. Some years later, he showed that other such triads exist in
halogens (chlorine, iodine, and bromine) and in alakali metals
( Lithium, sodium, and potassium).
• 1864-John Newlands, an English Chemist-proposed a system of
classification in which the elements are arranged in the order of
increasing atomic masses. He noted that there appeared to be
repetition of similar properties for every eighth element. Newlands
referred to his arrangement as the law of octaves.
 Newlands Law of Octaves

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Li Be B C N O F Na
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl K
K
• 1869-Lothar Meyer, A German Chemist, devised a classification of the
elements into a table that accounted for the periodic variation in
properties. His table included 56 elements.
• Same year-Dimitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist arranged the
elements in the order of increasing atomic weights. He observed that
when this was done, similar physical and chemical properties recurred
periodically.
• The early periodic table was erroneous because its classification was
according to increasing atomic weights. This caused several elements
to be misplaced in the table
• (1887-1915)-an English Physicist observed that frequencies of X-rays
emitted from elements could be correlated between with atomic
numbers. In 1914, he published the result of his work on 39 elements,
arranging them according to increasing atomic numbers.His work is
perhaps the most fundamental single step in the development of the
Periodic Table.
The Modern Periodic Table
• Based on the discovery of Moseley that the frequencies of X-rays
emitted from elements followed the atomic number and not the
atomic weight, elements in the periodic table are now arranged in the
order of increasing atomic numbers.
• Moseley summarized his discoveries by stating the modern periodic
law: The properties of the elements are periodic functions of their
atomic numbers.
Periods and Groups
• A single horizontal row in the periodic table is called a period. Period 1, the
first period at the top of the table, contains only the elements H and He.
• The second period, which is the second row of elements, contains Li, Be, B, C,
N, O, F, and Ne.
• A group or family is a vertical column of elements that have similar physical
and chemical properties. The groups are identified by numbers across the top
of the periodic table.
• The elements in the periodic table are divided into sections: the A groups,
which are the representative elements (1A-7A) and B groups are the transition
elements.
• The groups are also identified by the numbers 1 to 18 from left to right.
Classification of Groups
• A group is often called a family because of the similarity of the
elements within it. The family is usually given a name. group 1A
elements ( Li, Na, K, Cs and Fr) are part of a family of elements known
as the alkali elements.
• The halogens F, Cl, Br and I are found in group 7A or group 17.
Halogens exist as combinations of two atoms forming diatomic
molecules. Therefore, halogens exist as F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2 molecules.
• Group 8A or group 18, consist of the noble gases He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe,
and Rn.
• Groups 1,2 and 13 through 17 are classified as representative
elements. The outer energy level of these elements is incomplete and
electrons occupy s or p orbitals. The electronic configuration for these
elements include ns1 to np5
• Below is the complete list of families and their special names.
• Group 1A or 1 (Alkali Metals)(13), 2A or 2 (alkaline earth metals), 3A
or 13 (Boron family), 4A or 14 (carbon family), 5A or 15 (nitrogen
family), 6A or 16 (oxygen family), 7A or 17 (halogen family)(14), 8A or
18 (noble gases)(15)
Periodic Properties
• Metallic and Non-Metallic Property
• In the periodic table, do you notice the thick zigzag line?, This line
separates the metals from the non metals.
• Elements with 3 or less electrons in the outer energy level are
classified as metals, while elements with five or more electrons in the
outer energy level are classified as non metals.
• Elements adjacent to the ladder-like line exhibit some of the
properties of both metals and non metals. These elements are called
metalloids.
 COMPARISON BETWEEN METALS AND NON METALS

METALS NON METALS

High densities Gaseous or liquid form

High melting temp. Low densities
Luster Low melting temperature
Good conductors of heat and electricity Poor conductors
Usually soilds Oxides are usually soluble in basic solutions
Oxides are often soluble in acids soln
Solid at room temp. except mercury
Electronegativity
• Is the ability of an atom in a compound to attract additional electrons
toward self. The greater the electronegativity, the greater the
attraction for electrons.
• Electronegativity tends to increase from left to right across each
period and decreases from top to bottom in each family. Group 1A or
the alkali metals have the lowest electronegativity values: while group
7A, the halogens have the highest values.
• This concept is useful in writing names and formulas of compounds
and in predicting the type of bond and polarity of bonds and
molecules.