Anatomy and Physiology

Bone Histology
Lecture Outline*

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 Chapter 6
Skeletal System:
Bones and Bone Tissue

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 Skeletal System Functions
• Support. Bone is hard and rigid; cartilage is flexible
yet strong. Cartilage in nose, external ear, thoracic
cage and trachea. Ligaments- bone to bone
• Protection. Skull around brain; ribs, sternum,
vertebrae protect organs of thoracic cavity
• Movement. Produced by muscles on bones, via
tendons. Ligaments allow some movement between
bones but prevent excessive movement
• Storage. Ca and P. Stored then released as needed.
Fat stored in marrow cavities
• Blood cell production. Bone marrow that gives rise
to blood cells and platelets
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 Components of Skeletal System
• Bone
• Cartilage: three types
– Hyaline
– Fibrocartilage
– Elastic

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 Hyaline Cartilage
• Consists of specialized cells that produce matrix
– Chondroblasts: form matrix
– Chondrocytes: surrounded by matrix; are lacunae
• Matrix. Collagen fibers for strength, proteoglycans for resiliency
• Perichondrium. Double-layered C.T. sheath. Covers cartilage except at
articulations
– Inner. More delicate, has fewer fibers, contains chondroblasts
– Outer. Blood vessels and nerves penetrate. No blood vessels in
cartilage itself
• Articular cartilage. Covers bones at joints; has no perichondrium
• Growth
– Appositional. New chondrocytes and new matrix at the periphery
– Interstitial. Chondrocytes within the tissue divide and add more
matrix between the cells.
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Bone Shapes
• Long
– Ex. Upper and lower
limbs
• Short
– Ex. Carpals and tarsals
• Flat
– Ex. Ribs, sternum,
skull, scapulae
• Irregular
– Ex. Vertebrae, facial

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Long Bone • Diaphysis
– Shaft
Structure – Compact bone
• Epiphysis
– End of the bone
– Cancellous bone
• Epiphyseal plate: growth plate
– Hyaline cartilage; present until growth
stops
• Epiphyseal line: bone stops growing in length
• Medullary cavity: In children medullary
cavity is red marrow, gradually changes to
yellow in limb bones and skull (except for
epiphyses of long bones). Rest of skeleton is
red.
– Red marrow
– Yellow marrow
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Long Bone • Periosteum
– Outer is fibrous
Structure,
– Inner is single layer of bone cells
cont. including osteoblasts, osteoclasts
and osteochondral progenitor cells
– Fibers of tendon become
continuous with fibers of
periosteum.
– Sharpey’s fibers: some periosteal
fibers penetrate through the
periosteum and into the bone.
Strengthen attachment of tendon to
bone.
• Endosteum. Similar to inner
layer of periosteum. Lines all
internal spaces including spaces
in cancellous bone. 6-8
Flat, Short, Irregular Bones
• Flat Bones
– No diaphyses, epiphyses
– Sandwich of cancellous
between compact bone
• Short and Irregular Bone
– Compact bone that surrounds
cancellous bone center; similar
to structure of epiphyses of long
bones
– No diaphyses and not elongated
• Some flat and irregular bones
of skull have sinuses lined by
mucous membranes.

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 Bone Histology
• Bone matrix. Like reinforced concrete. Rebar is
collagen fibers, cement is hydroxyapetite
– Organic: collagen and proteoglycans
– Inorganic: hydroxyapetite. CaPO4 crystals
• Bone cells (see following slides for particulars)
– Osteoblasts
– Osteocytes
– Osteoclasts
– Stem cells or osteochondral progenitor cells
• Woven bone: collagen fibers randomly oriented
• Lamellar bone: mature bone in sheets
• Cancellous bone: trabeculae
• Compact bone: dense
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 Bone Matrix

• If mineral removed, bone is too bendable

• If collagen removed, bone is too brittle
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 • Osteoblasts
Bone Cells – Formation of bone through
ossification or osteogenesis.
Collagen produced by E.R. and
golgi. Released by exocytosis.
Precursors of hydroxyapetite stored
in vesicles, then released by
exocytosis.
– Ossification: formation of bone by
osteoblasts. Osteoblasts
communicate through gap
junctions. Cells surround
themselves by matrix.

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Osteocytes
• Osteocytes. Mature bone
cells. Stellate. Surrounded
by matrix, but can make
small amounts of matrix
to maintain it.
– Lacunae: spaces occupied
by osteocyte cell body
– Canaliculi: canals occupied
by osteocyte cell processes
– Nutrients diffuse through
tiny amount of liquid
surrounding cell and filling
lacunae and canaliculi.
Then can transfer nutrients
from one cell to the next
through gap junctions.
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 Osteoclasts and Stem Cells
• Osteoclasts. Resorption of bone
– Ruffled border: where cell membrane borders bone and
resorption is taking place.
– H ions pumped across membrane, acid forms, eats away
bone.
– Release enzymes that digest the bone.
– Derived from monocytes (which are formed from stem cells
in red bone marrow)
– Multinucleated and probably arise from fusion of a number
of cells
• Stem Cells. Mesenchyme (Osteochondral Progenitor
Cells) become chondroblasts or osteoblasts.

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 Woven and Lamellar Bone
• Woven bone. Collagen fibers randomly oriented.
– Formed
• During fetal development
• During fracture repair
• Remodeling
– Removing old bone and adding new
– Woven bone is remodeled into lamellar bone
• Lamellar bone
– Mature bone in sheets called lamellae. Fibers are
oriented in one direction in each layer, but in different
directions in different layers for strength.

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 Cancellous (Spongy) Bone

• Trabeculae: interconnecting rods or plates of bone. Like

scaffolding.
– Spaces filled with marrow.
– Covered with endosteum.
– Oriented along stress lines

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Compact Bone
• Central or Haversian canals:
parallel to long axis
• Lamellae: concentric,
circumferential, interstitial
• Osteon or Haversian system:
central canal, contents,
associated concentric lamellae
and osteocytes
• Perforating or Volkmann’s
canal: perpendicular to long
axis. Both perforating and
central canals contain blood
vessels. Direct flow of nutrients
from vessels through cell
processes of osteoblasts and
from one cell to the next.

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Compact • Osteons (Haversian
systems)
Bone – Blood vessel-filled central
canal (Haversian canal)
– Concentric lamellae of bone
surround central canal
– Lacunae and canaliculi contain
osteocytes and fluid
• Circumferential lamellae on
the periphery of a bone
• Interstitial lamellae between
osteons. Remnants of osteons
replaced through remodeling
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 Circulation in Bone
• Perforating canals: blood
vessels from periosteum
penetrate bone
• Vessels of the central
canal
• Nutrients and wastes
travel to and from
osteocytes via
– Interstitial fluid of lacunae
and canaliculi
– From osteocyte to osteocyte
by gap junctions

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 Bone Development: Two Types

• Intramembranous ossification
– Takes place in connective tissue membrane
• Endochondral ossification
– Takes place in cartilage
• Both methods of ossification
– Produce woven bone that is then remodeled
– After remodeling, formation cannot be
distinguished as one or other

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 Intramembranous Ossification
• Takes place in connective tissue membrane formed
from embryonic mesenchyme
• Forms many skull bones, part of mandible,
diaphyses of clavicles
• When remodeled, indistinguishable from
endochondral bone.
• Centers of ossification: locations in membrane
where ossification begins
• Fontanels: large membrane-covered spaces
between developing skull bones; unossified
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Intramembranous Ossification

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 Endochondral Ossification
• Bones of the base of the skull, part of the
mandible, epiphyses of the clavicles, and
most of remaining bones of skeletal system
• Cartilage formation begins at end of fourth
week of development
• Some ossification beginning at about week
eight; some does not begin until 18-20 years
of age

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Endochondral Ossification

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Endochondral Ossification

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Endochondral Ossification

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 Growth in Bone Length
• Appositional growth only
– Interstitial growth cannot occur because matrix is solid
– Occurs on old bone and/or on cartilage surface
• Growth in length occurs at the epiphyseal plate
• Involves the formation of new cartilage by
– Interstitial cartilage growth
– Appositional growth on the surface of the cartilage
• Closure of epiphyseal plate: epiphyseal plate is ossified
becoming the epiphyseal line. Between 12 and 25 years of
age
• Articular cartilage: does not ossify, and persists through
life
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Zones of the Epiphyseal Plate

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Growth in Bone Length

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 Growth at Articular Cartilage
• Increases size of bones with no epiphyses:
e.g., short bones
• Chondrocytes near the surface of the
articular cartilage similar to those in zone of
resting cartilage

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Fracture of the Epiphyseal Plate

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Growth in Bone Width

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 Factors Affecting Bone Growth
• Size and shape of a bone determined genetically but can be
modified and influenced by nutrition and hormones
• Nutrition
– Lack of calcium, protein and other nutrients during growth and
development can cause bones to be small
– Vitamin D
• Necessary for absorption of calcium from intestines
• Can be eaten or manufactured in the body
• Rickets: lack of vitamin D during childhood
• Osteomalacia: lack of vitamin D during adulthood leading to
softening of bones
– Vitamin C
• Necessary for collagen synthesis by osteoblasts
• Scurvy: deficiency of vitamin C
• Lack of vitamin C also causes wounds not to heal, teeth to fall out

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Factors Affecting Bone Growth,
cont.
• Hormones
– Growth hormone from anterior pituitary. Stimulates
interstitial cartilage growth and appositional bone
growth
– Thyroid hormone required for growth of all tissues
– Sex hormones such as estrogen and testosterone
• Cause growth at puberty, but also cause closure of the
epiphyseal plates and the cessation of growth

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Bone Remodeling
• Converts woven bone into lamellar bone
• Involved in bone growth, changes in
bone shape, adjustments in bone due to
stress, bone repair, and Ca ion
regulation
• Relative thickness of bone changes as
bone grows. Bone constantly removed
by osteoclasts and new bone formed by
osteoblasts.
• Formation of new osteons in compact
bone
– Osteoclasts enter the osteon from blood
in the central canal and internally
remove lamellae. Osteoblasts replace
bone
– Osteoclasts remove bone from the
exterior and the bone is rebuilt

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Bone Repair 1. Hematoma formation. Localized mass of
blood released from blood vessels but
confined within an organ or space. Clot
formation.
2. Callus formation. Callus: mass of tissue
that forms at a fracture site and connects the
broken ends of the bone.
– Internal- blood vessels grow into clot in
hematoma.
• Macrophages clean up debris,
osteoclasts break down dead tissue,
fibroblasts produce collagen and
granulation tissue.
• Chondroblasts from osteochondral
progenitor cells of periosteum and
endosteum produce cartilage within the
collagen.
• Osteoblasts invade. New bone is formed.
– External- collar around opposing ends.
Periosteal osteochondral progenitor cells 
osteoblasts and chondroblasts.
Bone/cartilage collar stabilizes two pieces.
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Bone Repair, cont.
3. Callus ossification.
Callus replaced by
woven, cancellous bone
4. Bone remodeling.
Replacement of
cancellous bone and
damaged material by
compact bone. Sculpting
of site by osteoclasts

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 Calcium Homeostasis
• Bone is major storage site for calcium
• The level of calcium in the blood depends
upon movement of calcium into or out of
bone.
– Calcium enters bone when osteoblasts create
new bone; calcium leaves bone when
osteoclasts break down bone
– Two hormones control blood calcium levels-
parathyroid hormone and calcitonin.
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Calcium Homeostasis

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 Effects of Aging on Skeletal System
• Bone matrix decreases. More brittle due to lack of
collagen; but also less hydroxyapetite.
• Bone mass decreases. Highest around 30. Men
denser due to testosterone and greater weight.
African Americans and Hispanics have higher bone
masses than Caucasians and Asians. Rate of bone
loss increases 10 fold after menopause. Cancellous
bone lost first, then compact.
• Increased bone fractures
• Bone loss causes deformity, loss of height, pain,
stiffness
– Stooped posture
– Loss of teeth
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 Bone • Open (compound)- bone break with
open wound. Bone may be sticking
Fractures out of wound.
• Closed (simple)- Skin not perforated.
• Incomplete- doesn’t extend across
the bone. Complete- does
• Greenstick: incomplete fracture that
occurs on the convex side of the
curve of a bone
• Hairline: incomplete where two
sections of bone do not separate.
Common in skull fractures
• Comminuted fractures: complete
with break into more than two pieces

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Bone Fractures, cont.
• Impacted fractures: one
fragment is driven into the
cancellous portion of the other
fragment.
• Classified on basis of direction
of fracture
• Linear
• Transverse
• Spiral
• Oblique
• Dentate: rough, toothed,
broken ends
• Stellate radiating out from a
central point.
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