ROLE OF MINERALS

IN LIVESTOCK
NUTRITION
Dr. Manzoor Ahmad Yatoo
PhD (Animal Nutrition)
Assistant Professor, Division of Basic Sciences & Humanities
Faculty of Agriculture, Sopore, SKUAST-Kashmir (J&K)
 Minerals ?
• Minerals are the inorganic components and make up only a relatively small portion
of the animal diet, but vital to the animal.
• Provided via animal's diet and(or) water supply, but the need for supplementation
vary widely among species.

CLASSIFICATION
• 1. Macro elements (Major elements): Required in relatively large amount (>100
mg/day) and in most of cases they are used in the synthesis of structural tissues.
Their concentration is expressed in term of percentage of diet. The important major
elements are calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chlorine and
sulphur.
• 2. Micro elements (Minor elements or trace elements): Required in trace amounts
(<100 mg/day) and usually function as activators or as a component of enzyme
system. The concentration of trace elements is expressed in terms of part per
million (PPM) since their concentration is very low in the plants and body. The
important trace elements are iron, copper, iodine, cobalt, zinc, manganese, fluorine,
selenium molybdenum, chromium, nickel, silicon, tin and vanadium and play a
functional role in animal physiology.
 Background

In the 17th century, a Swedish chemist, Gahn, found

calcium phosphate to be the major component of bone ash.
Frodisch (1832) linked iron with anemia in people.
In livestock, Boussingault (1847) showed that cattle had a
dietary need for common salt.
Babcock (1905) induced calcium deficiency in dairy cows by
feeding diets low in calcium.
A craving of sick cattle and sheep for bones of dead animals
in South African led to identification of P deficiency in cattle.
Chatin (1850–1854) linked environmental iodine deficiency
to the incidence of endemic goitre in man and animals.
Between 1928 and 1931, novel studies at Wisconsin with
rats given specially purified diets showed that copper,
manganese and zinc were each essential for health.
 General Function of Minerals
1. Structural: Form structural components of
body organs and tissues. Ca, P, Mg, Si, F & S.
2. Physiological: Maintenance of osmotic
pressure, acid–base balance, membrane
permeability. Na, K, Cl, Ca & Mg.
3. Catalytic: As catalysts in enzyme and hormone
systems. e.g, metalloenzymes
4. Regulatory: Regulate cell replication and
differentiation. Ca-signal transduction, Zn-
Transcription, I-Thyroxine
 Calcium
• Most abundant mineral in the body; 99% is
found in the bones and teeth. 1% outside.
• Blood calcium level – 9-11 mg/100 ml. (Laying
hens 30 to 40 mg 100 ml)- Ionized & bound
• Ca level regulated by Parathyroid hormone &
Calcitonin.
 Factors affecting blood calcium level

1. Calcium phosphorus ratio of food: 2:1

2. Fat content in the diet: ↓
3. Phytic acid and oxalate: ↓
4. Acidic medium in intestine: ↑
5. Protein content in the diet: ↑
6. Vitamin D in the diet: ↑
7. Parathyroid hormones: Regulation
8. Sex hormone: Oestrogen ↑
 Function of Calcium
• Skeletal formation
• Normal blood clotting
• Rhythmic heart action
• Neuromuscular excitability
• Enzyme activation and permeability of membranes
• Acid base balance of body fluid
• Activation of enzymes like lipase, succinic
dehydrogenase, adenosinetriphophatase etc.
 Absorption & Excretion
Main site of calcium absorption is the small intestine
(duodenum).

Major route of excretion for calcium is through faeces.

Requirement
Requirement of % of dry matter in
calcium feed
Lactating cows 0.43-0.60 %
Sheep & Goat 0.21-0.52 %
Poultry 0.80- 1.20 %
 Deficiency Symptoms

1. Rickets: Young growing animals.

2. Osteomalacia: Adult animals.
3. Osteoporosis: Decreased bone mass.
4. Milk fever (parturient paresis; calcium tetany):
Shortly after parturition.
5. Depression of milk yield.
6. Improper development of the egg-shell :
Laying hens, reduction in yield
 Source of calcium
• Milk and green leafy crops, especially
legumes, - Good sources
• Animal by product containing bone, fish meal,
meat cum bone meal - rich source
• Dicalcium phosphate, calcium carbonate and
calcium phosphate- good sources
• Cereals and roots are - poor sources.
 Phosphorous
• Major portion of phosphorus in the bones (80%).
• 20% of body phosphorus is widely distributed in the
fluids and soft tissues.
• The content of inorganic phosphorus in the blood is
4 to 9 mg per 100 ml.
• Phosphorus deficiency is usually more common in
cattle than in sheep.
• High phosphorus intake in association with
magnesium can lead to the formation of urinary
calculi.
 Functions of Phosphorus

• Formation of bones and teeth along with

calcium.
• Maintains the normal level of blood calcium.
• Formation of phospholipid in the cells, nucleic
acid, coenzyme & phosphoproteins.
• It plays a vital role or in energy metabolism in
the formation of sugar phosphate like adenosine
di-phosphate (ADP) and triphosphates (ATP).
 Deficiency Symptoms
1. Rickets: Along with calcium in young ones.
2. Osteomalacia: Along with calcium in adults.
3. Pica (Depraved appetite): Abnormal appetites and
chew woods, bone, rags and other foreign materials.
4. Reproduction: Low phosphorus - poor fertility;
dysfunction of ovaries causing inhibition, depression
and irregularity of oestrus.
5. Depression of milk yield.
6. Hens : Reduced egg quality & shell thickness.
 Requirements of Phosphorus
Requirement of % of dry matter in
calcium feed
Dairy cows 0.31-0.40 %
Sheep & Goat 0.16-0.37 %
Poultry 0.32- 0.50 %
Sources of Phosphorus
Animal products like fish meal, meat meal and bone
meal are good sources of phosphorus.
Cereal grains, wheat bran, rice bran, rice polishing,
cake etc. are fairly good sources of phosphorus.
Leguminous fodders like berseem and lucerne are
poor sources of phosphorus.
Most of the phosphorus present as phytate which
ruminants can utilize.
 Magnesium
• 70 % magnesium is found in the skeleton.
• Remainder distributed in soft tissues and fluids.
• Blood serum- 2 to 3 mg magnesium per 100 ml.
• Bone contains about 1.5 percent magnesium.
• Magnesium is largely (80%) protein bound.
• Very small readily available reserves of body
magnesium, animal dependent upon a regular
dietary supply.
 Function of Magnesium
1. Activation of enzymes such as phosphate transferases,
decarboxylases and acyltransferases.
2. Activator of pyruvate carboxylase, pyruvateoxidase and
reactions of the tricarboxylic acid cycle; carbohydrate &
lipid metabolism & cellular respiration.
3. Plays role in calcium and phosphorus metabolism for
the formation of bone and teeth.
4. Role in the neuromuscular activity of the body.
 Absorption & Excretion

• Major site- rumen and reticulum. Also L.I.

• Excretion via faeces, urine and milk.
Requirements
Requirement of % of dry matter in
Magnesium feed
Dairy cows 0.20
Sheep & Goat 0.04-0.08
 Deficiency symptoms

1. Magnesium tetany in adult animals (Grass

staggers, Grass tetany): ↓appetite, increased
excitability, profuse salivation and
convulsions.
Common in late winter & early spring season.
2. Hypomagnesimia in young calves: Reared
exclusively on milk.
 Sources of Magnesium

• Most of the commonly fed roughage and

concentrates contain 0.1 percent. Clovers are
usually richer in magnesium than grasses.
• Bran, vegetable oil cakes and leguminous
fodder are rich source of magnesium.
• Milk and animal products are much poorer
source.
 Sodium
• Alkaline salt which forms about 93 % alkali of
blood serum.
• Found in body fluids and muscles of the body.
• The total amount in body is about 0.2 % out of
which upto 0.05 % is deposited in bones.
• Sodium is the chief cation of blood plasma and
other extracellular fluids of the body.
 Functions of Sodium
1. Sodium salt is useful in the metabolism of water,
protein, fat and carbohydrate.
2. It controls body fluid concentration, contraction
of nerve and muscle fibres, body fluid pH,
osmotic pressure and help in maintaining
neutrality among body tissues.
3. Amino acid and glucose uptake are dependent
on sodium.
 Absorption & Excretion
• Rumen and upper small intestine.
• Excreted through urine with small amounts
through faeces and perspiration.
Requirements
Requirement of % of dry matter in
Sodium feed
Cows 0.18-0.20
Sheep & Goat 0.04-0.10
Poultry 0.11-0.14
Sources of sodium
Chief source- common salt.
Most feed and forages are poor source of Na
except the herbage which grown on alkaline soil.
 Deficiency symptoms

• Loss of appetite & general debility.

• Stoppage of growth and development.
• Fall of body temperature.
• Neuromuscular disturbances and
• Decreased milk production in lactating animals.
• Lowering of the osmotic pressure, which
results in dehydration of the body.
 Potassium

• Major cation found in the cells.

• Inside the body it is found in muscles, plasma and
blood cells.
Functions of Potassium
• It is essential part along with sodium, chlorine and
bicarbonate ions, in the osmotic pressure regulation
of the body fluids and in the acid-base balance in the
animals.
• Potassium plays an important role in nerve and
muscles excitability and activates certain enzymes.
 Absorption & Excretion

• Mainly from the small intestine and to some extent in

the large intestine.
• Excretion via urine and also via sweat and milk.
Sources of potassium
• Outside the body potassium is available in pasture
grasses.
• Carbohydrate sources are generally low in potassium (3–
5 g kg−1 DM), but protein sources generally contain 10–
20 g kg−1 DM
• Milk also contains potassium.
 Deficiency symptoms

1.Potassium deficiency result in slow growth,

reduced feed and water intake, lowered feed
efficiency, muscular weakness, nervous
disorders, stiffness, emaciation, intracellular
acidoisis and degeneration of vital organs.
2. High intake of potassium may interfere with the
absorption and metabolism of magnesium in
the animals, which may be an important factor
in the etiology of hypomagnesaemic tetany.
 Chlorine

• Out of total amount present in the body 80-85 % is found

in inorganic form while the rest 15 to 20 % in organic form.
• Found in skin, subcutaneous tissues and gastric juices
Absorption & Excretion
• Mainly absorbed from the upper S.I.
• It is excreted through urine with small amount in faeces
and perspiration.
Sources of chlorine
• Main source- common salt.
• Chlorine content of most foods is comparatively low except
fish and meat meal.
 Functions of Chlorine

1. Formation of HCl of the gastric juice.

2. Assists in the digestion of food.
3. Chlorine is associated with sodium and
potassium in acid base relationship and
osmotic regulation.
4. Helps in cell nutrition, growth and
reproduction among animals.
 Deficiency symptoms
• Decreased appetite which result in poor growth
rate and milk production.
• Abnormal increase of the alkali reserve of the blood
(alkalosis) caused by an excess of bicarbonate.
• Deficiency of salt in poultry leads to feather picking
and cannabalism.
• Salt Toxicities: Too much salt in the diet is definitely
harmful and causes excessive thirst, muscular
weakness and oedema. Salt poisoning is quite
common in pigs and poultry
 Sulphur

• Most of the sulphur in the animal body occurs

in proteins containing the amino acids
cysteine and methionine.
• The two vitamins, biotin and thiamin and the
hormone, insulin & oxytocin also contain
sulphur.
 Functions of Sulphur

• Essential element for protein and vitamin

synthesis.
• Wool is rich in cystine and contains about 4
percent of sulphur.
• It combined with iron and used for the formation
of heamoglobin in red blood cells.
• Useful in blood clotting and endocrine function.
• Maintains intra and extra cellular fluid and acid
base balance.
 Absorption of Sulphur

• Rumen and small intestine.

Sources of Sulphur
• Cereal grains tend to be low in sulfur.
• The sulfur concentrations found in pasture and
conserved forages range widely.
• Surface and ground water supplies can contain
SO4-sulfur.
• Deficiency of sulphur would indicate a protein
deficiency.
 Deficiency symptoms
• Poor growth and development of the body, loss of
weight, weakness.
• Profuse salivation and lacrimation and the eyes become
cloudy; eventually, the emaciated animal dies
• Microbial protein synthesis is reduced and the animal
shows sign of protein malnutrition.
• In sheep its deficiency causes production of the poor
quality wool.
• Toxicity can result from excess dietary sulphur, which is
converted to hydrogen sulphide, a toxic agent, by the
gastrointestinal flora. This reduces rumen motility and
causes nervous and respiratory distress.
 Iron

• The total amount of iron found in the body is

0.004%.
• Half as haemoglobin & half as myoglobin, enzyme
cytochrome, peroxidase, catalase and other
enzymes of the body; liver, spleen and kidney.
• More than 90 per cent of the iron in the body is
combined with proteins.
• Occurs in blood serum in a protein called
transferrin.
 Functions of Iron

• Iron helps in utilization of oxygen by blood.

• Iron has a major role in a host of biochemical
reactions, particularly in connection with
enzymes of the electron transport chain
(cytochromes).
• Enzymes containing or activated by iron are
catalase, peroxidases, phenylalanine
hydroxylase and many others, including all the
tricarboxylic acid cycle enzymes.
 Absorption and Excretion
• Iron is absorbed throughout GIT , but mainly in the
duodenum and jejunum
• Amount of iron absorbed is related to its need by the
animal body due to limited excretion capacity.
• Mucosal Block theory: According to this theory, the
mucosal cells of the gastrointestinal tract absorb iron
and convert it into ferritin; when the cells become
physiologically saturated with ferritin, further
absorption is impeded until the iron is released and
transferred to plasma.
• Iron produced from the destruction of Hb is recycled
for Hb regeneration, so low needs.
 Factors which affect iron absorption

• Acidic condition in the GIT - ↑

• Ascorbic acid in the diet - ↑
• Phosphorous and phytic acid present in the
diet- ↓
Source of Iron
• Milk is poor and green forages, most legumes &
seed coats are rich in iron.
• Feeds of animal origin, such as blood and fishmeals
are excellent sources of iron
 Deficiency symptoms

• The deficiency symptoms of iron are lower weight gain,

listless, inability to withstand circulatory strain,
laboured breathing after mild exercise.
• Reduced appetite and decreased resistance to
infection.
• Anaemia
• In piglets deficiency characterized by poor appetite,
growth & anemia. Breathing becomes laboured and
spasmodic and this condition is called 'thumps'.
• (Requirement 15 mg/d, supply 1 mg/d via milk)
 Copper

• Copper is an integral part of cytochrome A and

cytochrome C oxidase.
• The enzymes tyrosinase, lactase, ascorbic acid
oxidase, plasma amino oxidase, superoxide
dismutases, ceruloplasmin and uricase contain
copper, and their activity is dependent on this
element.
• In blood plasma as a copper-protein complex,
ceruloplasmin.
 Absorption and Excretion

• Copper absorption - from the abomasum and

small intestine.
• Dietary phytate, ↑, Calcium carbonate, iron, zinc
and molybdenum reduce its absorption.
• Excreted via faeces.
Sources of copper
• Concetrates – rich sources, Straw –Poor sources
Requirement
• Cattle: 50 mg/day Sheep: 5 mg/day
 Functions of Copper
• Acts as catalyst in Hb formation and provides
oxygen absorption power to RBC’s.
• Plays an important role as an essential part of
enzymes system.
• Necessary for the normal pigmentation of hair,
fur, wool and skin.
• Necessary for iron absorption from small
intestine and tissue stores.
 Deficiency Symptoms
• Ataxia
• Three types of ataxia occur naturally in lambs:
o neonatal (paralysis or ataxia at birth, demyelination)
o delayed (uncoordinated hind-limb movements-Sway back),
o Atypical: older lambs, cerebral edema
• Abnormal wool and hair (Stingy/steely wool)
• Depigmentation (Greying of black coat color-tyrosinase)
• Anaemia
• Falling disease -Sudden death , degenerative myocardium.
• Teartness (Peat scours): Severe scouring and unthriftiness.
Mo excess.
• Mo-S-Cu interlationship ↓Cu (insoluble copper thio-molybdate)
• Cu Poisoing : Sheep most susceptible (>15 mg/kg)-hepatotoxic.
 Iodine
• Iodine is found in thyroid gland where it is incorporated in
the thyroxine (T3 & T4) , a hormone secreted by the gland.

Absorption & Excretion

• Rumen is the major site of absorption
• Abomasum for endogeneous/ circulatory I.
• Excreted via urine.
Sources of iodine
• Iodine is available in fish meal, cod liver oil and iodized salts
such as sodium and potassium iodine.
 Functions of Iodine
• Essential for proper functioning of the thyroid
gland, treatment of simple goitre.
• Control of metabolic activities and for the
proper growth and development.
• Increasing BMR, accelerating growth and
increasing the oxygen consumption of the
whole organism.
• Control the development of the foetus and are
involved in immune defence, digestion, muscle
function and seasonality of reproduction.
 Deficiency Symptoms

• Development of simple goitre (enlargement of

thyroid gland).
• Falling of hair, rough and hard skin,
reproductive failure, retarded growth rate, poor
mental and sexual development.
• Plants of Brassica family like cabbage, rape, kale
and also soybeans, linseed, peas and groundnut
are rich in goitrogens causing goitre despite
normal I intake.
 Cobalt
• Cobalt is dietary essential for ruminants because it is
necessary for the synthesis of vitamin B12 by the
gastrointestinal microbes.
Absorption & Excretion
• Cobalt is utilized by rumen microbes in the rumen and also
absorbed in the lower portion of the small intestine.
• Cobalt is mainly excreted in the faeces with small amount in
urine.
Sources of Cobalt
• Normally feed and fodders contain traces of cobalt ranging
from 0.10 to 0.25 ppm. Legumes rich.
• Cobalt sulphate and chloride are good source of cobalt.
 Deficiency symptoms
• Loss of appetite, emaciation, rough coat and
paleness of skin, normocytic anaemia,
retarded growth or weight loss, pica,
weakness and reproductive failure, stumping
gait and finally leading to death.
• Under grazing conditions, lambs are the most
sensitive to cobalt deficiency.
• Deficiency symptoms when cobalt in the
herbage are below 0.1 mg/kg DM.
 Zinc
• Found in very tissue in the animal body with
higher concentrations in skin, hair and wool.
• Constituent of several enzyme systems in the
body like carbonic dehydrogenase, pancreatic
carboxypeptidase, glutamic dehydrogenase
and a number of pyridine nucleotide
dehydrogenases.
• Acts as a co-factors for many other enzymes.
• Involved in cell replication and differentiation,
particularly in nucleic acid metabolism.
 Absorption & Excretion
• Absorption takes place in small intestine.
• Absorption of zinc involves solubilization of zinc,
dissociation from the source, binding to receptors
at the intestinal cell wall and transport into the cell
aided by zinc binding proteins.
• Zinc is mainly excreted through faeces and a small
proportion through urine.
Sources of Zinc
• Brans are rich source of zinc.
• Feed and fodders have adequate amount of zinc.
 Deficiency symptoms
1. Cattle: Milk production reduced, poor fertility,
loss of hair, lower feed efficiency, loss of appetite
etc.
2. Calves: Inflammation of nose and mouth,
stiffness of the joints, swollen feet and
parakeratosis.
3. Chicks: Retarded growth, 'Frizzled’ feather,
parakeratosis and a bone abnormality referred
to as the 'Swollen hock syndrome'.
 Manganese
• Amount of Mn present in animal body is very
small, the highest concentrations occurring in
bones, liver, kidney, pancreas and Pit. gland.
• Manganese is an activator of many enzymes such
as hydrolases and kinases and as a constituent of
arginase, pyruvate carboxylase and manganese
superoxide dismutase.
Sources of Manganese
• Forages are rich in manganese compared to
cereals & animal origin foods.
 Deficiency symptoms
• Cattle: Poor growth, leg disorders, skeletal
abnormalities, ataxia of the new born and
reproductive failures (delay oestrus and
conception, and to increase abortion).

• Poultry: In young chicks its deficiency leading to

perosis/slipped tendon a leg deformity. In
breeding birds reduces hatchability & shell
thickness.
 Fluorine
• The amount of fluorine in common feed stuffs
is 1 to 2 part per million.
• Presence of 100 ppm fluorine in the ration on dry
matter basis, and above 3 ppm in drinking water
is toxic to animals.
Functions of Fluorine
• In very small amount the mineral is essential for
the growth and proper development of the bones
and teeth. Reduces the incidence of dental caries.
 Deficiency symptoms

• Deficiency of fluorine causes dental caries.

Toxicity of fluorine
• Toxicity are found in teeth and bone. The bone
become thick and soft with dirty coloration,
teeth loss their normal shining appearance.
• Sometime yellow and black spots are also visible
on the teeth.
• Results in loss of appetite, growth & production.
 Selenium
• Selenium is present in all cells of the body but concentration
is normally less than 1 ppm.
• Toxic concentration in liver and kidney are normally
between 5 and 10 ppm.
Functions of Selenium
• Essential for growth, reproduction, prevention
of various diseases and protection of the integrity of tissues.
• The metabolic function closely related with vitamin E and
acts as an antioxidant and required for adequate immune
response.
• PG synthesis and essential fatty acid metabolism.
• Strong tendency to complex with heavy metals.
• Important part of an enzyme glutathione
peroxidase which destroys peroxides.
• Important in sulphur amino acid synthesis.
• Production of thyroid hormone.
 Deficiency Symptoms
• Myopathies in sheep and cattle.
• Reduces hatchability and egg production.
• Exudative diathesis, in chicks.
• Dietary liver necrosis & mulberry heart disease in pigs.
Toxic effect
• Alkali disease and Blind staggers characterized by
stiffness of joints, lameness, loss of hair from mane
and tail and skin lesions on the legs.
• Called Degnala India.
 Molybdenum
• Available in pasture grasses, liver, intestinal tissues
and milk of the animals.
Functions of Molybdenum
1. Component of enzyme xanthineoxidase, especially
in poultry for uric acid formation.
2. As constituent of nitrate reductase it also helps in
the utilization of nitrate.
3. Takes parts in purine metabolism and stimulates
action of rumen microorganism.
4. Facilitates the reduction of cytochrome C by
aldehyde oxidase.
 Absorption & Excretion
• Absorbed from intestine & excreted through
urine with a small amount in bile and milk.
Toxic effect
• In the molybdenum toxicity (molybdenosis) in
ruminants suffer from extreme diarrhoea, loss
in weight and reduced milk yields. The
condition is known as teartness.
 Chromium
• Play a role in the maintenance of configuration of the RNA
molecule.
• Chromium influences metabolism of glucose, lipid and
protein.
• Chromium is a primary active component of glucose
tolerance factor (GTF) which makes the metabolic action
of hormone insulin, more effective in regulating energy
utilization, muscle tissue deposition, fat metabolism and
serum cholesterol levels.
• It helps in binding insulin to cell membrane receptors sites
and subsequent transport of glucose and amino acids in
side the cells.