Chapter 3

Problem Solving
Chapter 3
Problem Solving
Most occupations require good problem-solving skills. For instance,
architects and engineers must solve many complicated problems as
they design and construct modern buildings that are aesthetically
pleasing, functional, and that meet stringent safety requirements.
Two goals of this chapter are:
1. to help you become a better problem solver and
2. to demonstrate that problem solving can be an enjoyable
experience.
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning
The type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based on the
examination of specific examples is called inductive reasoning. The
conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is often called a
conjecture, since it may or may not be correct.
Inductive Reasoning is the process of reaching a general conclusion by
containing specific examples.
When you examine a list of numbers and predict the next number
in the list according to some pattern you have observed, you are using
inductive reasoning.
Use Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number
Use inductive reasoning to predict the number in each of the following:
a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ?
Each successive numbers is 3 larger than the preceding number. Thus,
we predict that the next number is 3 larger than 15.
b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?
The first two numbers differs by 2. The second and third number differs
by 3. It appears that the difference between of any two numbers is
always 1 more than the preceding difference.
Use Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number
Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in the following list
a. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ?
Each successive numbers is 5 larger than the preceding number. Thus
we predict that the next number in the list is 5 larger than 25.
b. 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, ?
The first two numbers differs by 3. The second and third number differs
by 5. It appears that the difference between of any two numbers is
always 2 more than the preceding difference.
Use Inductive Reasoning to Make a Conjecture
• Consider the following procedure: Pick a number, Multiply the
number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.
Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use
inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about the relationship about
the resulting number and the size of the original number.
Original number 5
Multiply by 8 5 x 8 = 40
Add 6 40 + 6 = 46
Divide by 2 46 2 = 23
Subtract 3 23 – 3 = 20
Use Inductive Reasoning to Make a Conjecture
• Consider the following procedure: Pick a number, Multiply the
number by 9, add 15 to the product, divide the sum by 3, and subtract
5.
Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use
inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about the relationship about
the resulting number and the size of the original number.
Original number
Multiply by 9 __ x 9 = __
Add 15 __ + 15 = __
Divide by 3 __ = __
Subtract 5 __ – 5 = __
Inductive Reasoning
Use Inductive Reasoning to Solve an Application
Use the data in the table and inductive reasoning to answer each of the
following questions.
a. If a pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is its period?
b. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what happens to its
period?
Solution:
a. If a pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is its period?
In the table, each pendulum has a period that is the square root of its
length. Thus we conjecture that a pendulum with a length of 49 units will
have a period of 7 heartbeats.
b. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what happens to its period?
In the table, a pendulum with a length of 4 units has a period that is
twice that of a pendulum with a length of 1 unit. A pendulum with a
length of 16 units has a period that is twice that of a pendulum with a
length of 4 units. It appears that quadrupling the length of a pendulum
doubles its period
A tsunami is a sea wave produced by an underwater earthquake.
The height of a tsunami as it approaches land depends on the velocity
of the tsunami. Use the table at the left and inductive reasoning to
answer each of the following questions.
a. What happens to the height of a tsunami when its velocity is
doubled?
b. What should be the height of a tsunami if its velocity is 30 feet per
second?
Solution:
a. What happens to the height of a tsunami when its velocity is
doubled?
It appears that when the velocity of a tsunami is doubled, its height is
quadrupled.
b. What should be the height of a tsunami if its velocity is 30 feet per
second?
A tsunami with a velocity of 30 feet per second will have a height that is
four times that of a tsunami with a speed of 15 feet per second. Thus,
we predict a height of 4 x 25 = 100 feet for a tsunami with a velocity of
30 feet per second.
Conclusions based on inductive reasoning may be incorrect. As an
illustration, consider the circles shown above. For each circle, all
possible line segments have been drawn to connect each dot on the
circle with all the other dots on the circle.
For each circle, count the number of regions formed by the line
segments that connect the dots on the circle. Your results should agree
with the results in the following table.
Number of dots 1 2 3 4 5 6
Maximum numbers of regions 1 2 4 8 16 ?

Deductive Reasoning
There appears to be a pattern. Each additional dot seems to double
the number of regions. Guess the maximum number of regions you
expect for a circle with six dots. Check your guess by counting the
maximum number of regions formed by the line segments that connect
six dots on a large circle. Your drawing will show that for six dots, the
maximum number of regions is 31 (see the next figure ), not 32 as you
may have guessed. With seven dots the maximum number of regions is
57. This is a good example to keep in mind. Just because a pattern holds
true for a few cases, it does not mean the pattern will continue. When
you use inductive reasoning, you have no guarantee that your
conclusion is correct.
Deductive Reasoning
Counterexamples
A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all cases. If
you can find one case for which a statement is not true, called a
counterexample, then the statement is a false statement. In Example 4
we verify that each statement is a false statement by finding a
counterexample for each.
Find a Counterexamples
•Verify
that each of the following statements is a false statement by
finding a counterexample.
For all numbers x:
a. │x │ ˃0
b. X2˃ x
c. = x
Find a Counterexamples
•Solution:

A statement may have many counterexamples, but we need only find
one counterexample to verify that the statement is false.
a. Let x = 0. Then │0│ = 0. Because 0 is not greater than 0, we have
found a counterexample. Thus “for all numbers x, │x│ ˃ 0” is a false
statement.
b. For x = 1 we have 12 = 1. Since 1 is not greater than 1, we have found
a counterexample. Thus “for all numbers x, x2 ˃ x” is a false
statement.
c. Consider x = -3. Then = = 3. Since 3 is not equal to -3, we have found
a counterexample. Thus “for all numbers x, = x” is a false statement.
Check your progress 4
•Verify
that each of the following statements is a false statement by
finding a counterexample for each.
For all numbers x:
a. = 1
b. = x + 1
c. = x + 4
•Solution

a. = 1
Let x = 0. Then ≠ 1, because division by 0 is undefined.
b. = x + 1
Let x = 1. Then = , whereas x + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2
c. = x + 4
Let x = 3. Then = = = = 5, whereas x + 4 = 3 + 4 = 7.
Deductive Reasoning
Another type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning. Deductive
reasoning is distinguished from inductive reasoning in that it is the
process of reaching a conclusion by applying general principles and
procedures.
Deductive Reasoning is the process of reaching conclusion by
applying assumptions, procedures or principles.
Deductive Reasoning
• Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure;
produces four time the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number, Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the
product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.
Let n represents the original number.
Multiply the number by 8 8n
Add 6 to the product 8n + 6
Divide the sum by 2 = 4n + 3
Subtract 3 4n + 3 – 3 = 4n
We started with n and ended with 4n. The procedure given in this
example produces a number that is four times the original number.
Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure
produces a number that is three times the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 6, add 10 to the
product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 5.
Hint: Let n represent the original number
•Let
n represent the original number.
Multiply the number by 6: 6n
Add 10 to the product: 6n + 10
Divide the sum by 2: = 3n + 5
Subtract 5: 3n - 5 + 5 = 3n
The procedure always produces a number that is three times the
original number.
Inductive Reasoning vs. Deductive Reasoning
Determine whether each of the following example is inductive or deductive
reasoning.
a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other year. Last
year the tree did not produce plums, so this year the tree will produce plums?
b. All home improvements cost more that the estimate. The contractor
estimated that my home improvements will cost 35,000. Thus my home
improvements will cost more than 35,000?
Solution
a. The argument reaches a conclusion based on specific examples, so is an
example of inductive reasoning.
b. Because the conclusion is a specific case of general assumption, so this
argument is an example of deductive reasoning.
Inductive Reasoning vs. Deductive Reasoning
Determine whether each of the following example is inductive or
deductive reasoning.
a. All Gillian Flynn novels are worth reading. The novel Gone Girl is a
Gillian Flynn novel. Thus Gone Girl is worth reading?
The conclusion is a specific case of general assumption, so the
argument is an example of deductive reasoning.
b. I know I will win a jackpot on this slot machine in the next 10 tries,
because it has not paid out any money during the last 45 tries?
The argument reaches a conclusion based on specific examples, so
the argument is an example of inductive reasoning.
Logic Puzzles
Logic puzzles can be solved by using deductive reasoning and a chart
that enables us to display the given information in a visual manner.
Each four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah and Brian has a different
occupation (editor, banker, chef, or dentist). From the following clues,
determine the occupation of each neighbor.
1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
4. The banker lives next door to Brian.
Logic Puzzles
1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.
From clue no. 1. Maria is not a banker or the dentist. In the following
chart, write X1 (which stands for ruled out by clue no. 1) in the banker
and the dentist column of Maria’s row.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
From clue no. 2. Sarah is not the editor. Write X2 (ruled out by clue
no.2) in the Editor’s column of Sarah’s row. We know from clue no. 1
the banker is not the last to get home and we know from clue no. 2
that Sarah is the last to get home; therefore, Sarah is not the banker.
Write X2 in the banker column of Sarah’s row.
Logic Puzzles
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
For clue no. 3. Sarah is not the dentist. Write X3 for this condition. There are now
Xs for three occupation in Sarah’s row; therefore, Sarah must be the chef. Place a √
in that box. Since Sarah is the chef, none of the other three people can be the chef.
Write X3 for these conditions. There are now Xs for three of the four occupations in
Maria’s row; therefore, Maria must be the editor. Insert a √ to indicate that Maria is
the editor,and write X3 twice to indicate that neither Sean or Brian is the editor.
4. The banker lives next door to Brian.
From clue no. 4. Brian is not the banker. Write an X4 for this condition. See the
following table. Since there are three Xs in the Banker’s column. Sean must be the
banker. Place a √ in that box. Then Sean must be the dentist. Write X4 in that box.
Since there three xs in the Dentist column, Brian is the Dentist. Place a √ in that
box.
Seat Work
Brianna, Ryan, Tyler, and Ashley were recently elected as the new class
officers (president, vice president, secretary, treasurer) of the freshmen
class at Philippine Christian University. From the following clues,
determine which position each holds.
1. Ashley is younger than the president but older than the treasurer.
2. Brianna and the secretary are both the same age, and they are the
youngest members of the group.
3. Tyler and the secretary are next-door neighbors.
Solution
1. Ashley is younger than the president but older than the treasurer.
From clue no.1, we know that Ashley is not the president or the
treasurer. In the following chart, write X1 (which stands for “ruled out
by clue no. 1”) at the President and Treasurers column of Ashley’s row.
2. Brianna and the secretary are both the same age, and they are the
youngest members of the group.
From clue no. 2, Brianna is not the secretary. We know from clue no.1
that the president is not the youngest members of the group. Thus,
Brianna is not the president. In the chart write X2 for these two
conditions. Also we know from clues no.1 and 2 that Ashey isnot the
secretary, because she is older than the treasurer. Write X2 in the
Secretary column of Ashley’s row
Solution
At these point we see that Ashley must be the vice president and none
of the other member is the vice president. Thus, we can put X2 on all
members of the group.
Now we can see that Brianna must be the treasurer and that neither
Ryan and Tyler is the treasurer.
3. Tyler and the secretary are next-door neighbors.
From clue no. 3, Tyler is not the secretary. Thus, we can conclude that
Tyler is the president and Ryan must be the secretary.
Tyler is the president, Ashley is the vice president, Ryan is the secretary
and Brianna is the treasurer.
KenKen Puzzles
KenKen® is an arithmetic-based logic puzzle that was invented by the
Japanese mathematics teacher Tetsuya Miyamoto in 2004. The noun
“ken” has “knowledge” and “awareness” as synonyms. Hence, KenKen
translates as knowledge squared, or awareness squared.
In recent years the popularity of KenKen has increased at a dramatic
rate. More than a million KenKen puzzle books have been sold, and
KenKen puzzles now appear in many popular newspapers, including the
New York Times and the Boston Globe.
KenKen puzzles are similar to Sudoku puzzles, but they also require
you to perform arithmetic to solve the puzzle.
Rules in Solving a KenKen Puzzle
For a 3 by 3 puzzle, fill in each box (square) of the grid with one of the numbers 1, 2, or
3.
For a 4 by 4 puzzle, fill in each square of the grid with one of the numbers 1, 2, 3, or 4.
For a n by n puzzle, fill in each square of the grid with one of the numbers 1, 2, 3, ... , n.
• Grids range in size from a 3 by 3 up to a 9 by 9. • Do not repeat a number in any row
or column.
• The numbers in each heavily outlined set of squares, called cages, must combine (in
some order) to produce the target number in the top left corner of the cage using the
mathematical operation indicated.
• Cages with just one square should be filled in with the target number.
• A number can be repeated within a cage as long as it is not in the same row or
column.
Basic Puzzle Solution Strategies
Single-Square Cages Fill cages that consist of a single square with the
target number for that square.
Cages with Two Squares Next examine the cages with exactly two
squares. Many cages that cover two squares will only have two digits
that can be used to fill the cage. For instance, in a 5 by 5 puzzle, a 20
cage with exactly two squares can only be filled with 4 and 5 or 5 and 4.
Large or Small Target Numbers Search for cages that have an unusually
large or small target number. These cages generally have only a few
combinations of numbers that can be used to fill the cage.
Basic Puzzle Solution Strategies
Magic Squares
A magic square of order n is an arrangement of numbers in a square
such that the sum of the n numbers in each row, column, and diagonal
is the same number. The magic square below has order 3, and the sum
of the numbers in each row, column, and diagonal is 15.
4 9 2 15
3 5 7 15
8 1 6 15
15 15 15 15 15
Exercises Set 3.1
•In Exercises 1 to 10, use inductive reasoning to predict the next
number in each list.
1. 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, ? 8. , , ?
2. 5, 11, 17, 23, 29, 35, ? 9. 2, 7, -3, 2, -8, -3, -13, -8, -18, ?
3. 3, 5, 9, 15, 23, 33, ? 10. 1, 5, 12, 22, 35, ?
4. 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, ?
5. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49,
6. 80, 70, 61, 53, 46, 40, ?
7. , , ?
In Exercises 11 to 16, use inductive reasoning to decide whether each statement is correct.
Note: The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... are called counting numbers or natural numbers. Any
counting number n divided by 2 produces a remainder of 0 or 1. If n ÷ 2 has a remainder of
0, then n is an even counting number. If n ÷ 2 has a remainder of 1, then n is an odd
counting number.
Even counting numbers: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ...
Odd counting numbers: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ...
11. The sum of any two even counting numbers is always an even counting number.
12. The product of an odd counting number and an even counting number is always an
even counting number.
13. The product of two odd counting numbers is always an odd counting number.
14. The sum of two odd counting numbers is always an odd counting number.
15. Pick any counting number. Multiply the number by 6. Add 8 to the product. Divide the
sum by 2. Subtract 4 from the quotient. The resulting number is twice the original number.
16. Pick any counting number. Multiply the number by 8. Subtract 4 from the product.
Divide the difference by 2. Add 2 to the quotient. The resulting number is four times the
original number.
Magic Squares
Use deductive reasoning to determine the missing numbers in each magic square
of order 4 and the sum of each row, column, and diagonal.
2 13
10 11
6 12
4 15 1
3.2 Problem Solving with Patterns
Terms of a Sequence
Sequence is an ordered list of numbers.
5, 14, 27, 44, 65….
a1 represents the first term of a sequence
a2 represents the second term of a sequence
a3 represents the third term of a sequence
.
.
.
an represents the nth term of a sequence
Problem Solving with Patterns
Difference table in the sequence 2, 6, 12, 20, 30, … n2 + n, …
a1 = 2, a2 = 6, a3 = 12, a4 = 20, a5 =30, and an = n2 + n.
when we examine the sequence, it is natural to ask;
• What is the next term?
• What formula or rule can be used to generate the terms?
sequence 2 5 8 11 14 …
first difference 3 3 3 3 …
• The following table is the difference table for the sequence 5, 14, 27,
44, 65, …
sequence 5 14 27 44 65 …
first difference 9 13 17 21 …
second difference 4 4 4
• Use the difference table to predict the next term in the sequence 2, 7,
24, 59, 118, 207, …
sequence 2 7 24 59 118 207 …
first difference 5 17 35 59 89 …
second difference 12 18 24 30…
third difference 6 6 6
Check your progress
• Use the difference table to predict the next term in the sequence 1,
14, 51, 124, 245, 426, …
sequence 1 14 51 124 245 426 …
first difference 13 37 73 121 181…
second difference 24 36 48 60…
third difference 12 12 12
Check your progress
14, 51, 124, 245, 426, …
sequence 1 14 51 124 245 426 …
second difference 24 36 48 60 …
third difference 12 12 12 12
Check your progress
14, 51, 124, 245, 426, …
sequence 1 14 51 124 245 426 …
second difference 24 36 48 60 72
Check your progress
14, 51, 124, 245, 426, …
sequence 1 14 51 124 245 426 …
first difference 13 37 73 121 181 253
Check your progress
14, 51, 124, 245, 426, …
sequence 1 14 51 124 245 426 …
Check your progress
14, 51, 124, 245, 426, …
sequence 1 14 51 124 245 426 679
nth-Term Formula for a Sequence
In Example 1 we used a difference table to predict the next term of a
sequence. In some cases we can use patterns to predict a formula,
called an nth-term formula, that generates the terms of a sequence. As
an example, consider the formula an = 3n2 + n. This formula defines a
sequence and provides a method for finding any term of the sequence.
For instance, if we replace n with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, then the formula
an = 3n2 + n generates the sequence 4, 14, 30, 52, 80, 114.
To find the 40th term, replace each n with 40.
an = 3(40) 2 + 40 = 4840
In Example 2 we make use of patterns to determine an nth-term
formula for a sequence given by geometric figures.
Example 2 Find an nth-Term Formula
Assume the pattern shown by the square tiles in the following figures
continues.
a. What is the nth-term formula for the number of tiles in the nth
figure of the sequence?
b. How many tiles are in the eighth figure of the sequence?
c. Which figure will consist of exactly 320 tiles?
Solution
a. Examine the figures for patterns. Note that the second figure has
two tiles on each of the horizontal sections and one tile between
the horizontal sections. The third figure has three tiles on each
horizontal section and two tiles between the horizontal sections.
The fourth figure has four tiles on each horizontal section and three
tiles between the horizontal sections.
Thus the number of tiles in the nth figure is given by two groups of n
plus a group of n less one. That is,
an = 2n +(n – 1)
an = 3n - 1
b. The number of tiles in the eighth figure of the sequence is 3(8) - 1 =
23.
c. To determine which figure in the sequence will have 320 tiles, we
solve the equation 3n - 1 = 320.
3n - 1 = 320
3n = 321 • Add 1 to each side.
n = 107 • Divide each side by 3.
The 107th figure is composed of 320 tiles.
Assume that the pattern shown by the square tiles in the following
figure continues.
a. What is the nth-term formula for the number of tiles in the nth
figure of the sequence?
b. How many tiles are in the tenth figure of the sequence?
c. Which figure will consist of exactly 419 tiles?
a. Each figure after the first figure consists of a square region and a “tail.”
The number of tiles in the square region is n2, and the number of tiles in
the tail is n - 1. Thus the nth-term formula for the number of tiles in the
nth figure is an = n2 + n - 1.
b. Let n = 10. Then n2 + n - 1 = (10)2 + (10) - 1 = 109.
c. n2 + n - 1 = 419 • A quadratic equation.
n2 + n - 420 = 0 • Write in standard form.
(n + 21)(n – 20) = 0 • Factor.
n + 21 = 0 or n - 20 = 0 • Set each factor equal
n = -21 n = 20 to 0.
We consider only the positive result. The 20th figure will consist of 419 tiles.
Polygonal Numbers
•The
ancient Greek mathematicians were interested in the geometric shapes
associated with numbers. For instance, they noticed that triangles can be
constructed using 1, 3, 6, 10, or 15 dots, as shown in Figure 3.1 on page 76.
They called the numbers 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ... the triangular numbers. The Greeks
called the numbers 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ... the square numbers and the numbers 1,
5, 12, 22, 35, ... the pentagonal numbers.
An nth-term formula for the triangular numbers is:
Triangularn =
The square numbers have an nth-term formula of
Squaren = n2
The nth-term formula for the pentagonal numbers is
Pentagonaln =
Polygonal Numbers
Fibonacci Sequence
Sequence is an ordered list of numbers called terms, that
may have repeated values. The arrangement of these terms is
set by a definite rule.
Generating a sequence
Analyze the given sequence and identify the next three terms
a. 1 10 100 1000
b. 2 5 9 14 20
c. 16 32 64 128
d. 1 1 2 3 5 8
Fibonacci Sequence
Fibonacci Sequence is formed by adding the preceding
two numbers beginning with 0 and 1.
Ex. 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 and so on….
Fibonacci Sequence
Let Fib(n) be the nth term of the Fibonacci sequence with F1
= 1, F2 = 1, F3 = 2, F4 = 3 and so on….
1. Find F8
2. Find F19
3. If F22 = 17,711 and F24 = 46,368, what is F23?
4. Evaluate the following sums
a. F1 + F2 = _____
b. F1 + F2 + F3 = _____
c. F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 = _____
Determine Properties of Fibonacci Numbers
Determine whether each of the following statements
about Fibonacci numbers is true or false. Note: The first
10 terms of the Fibonacci sequence are 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8,
13, 21, 34, and 55.
a. If n is even, then Fn is an odd number.
b. b. 2Fn – Fn-2 = Fn + 1 for n = 3
Solution
a. An examination of Fibonacci numbers shows that the second
Fibonacci number, 1, is odd and the fourth Fibonacci number, 3, is
odd, but the sixth Fibonacci number, 8, is even. Thus the statement
“If n is even, then Fn is an odd number” is false.
b. Experiment to see whether 2Fn – Fn-2 = Fn + 1 for several values of n.
For instance, for n = 7, we get 2Fn – Fn-2 = Fn + 1
2F7 – F7-2 = F7 + 1
2F7 – F5 = F8
2(13) – 5 = 21
26 – 5 = 21
21 = 21 which is true.
Determine Properties of Fibonacci Numbers
Solution
Evaluating 2Fn – Fn-2 for several additional values of n, n = 3,
we find that in each case 2Fn – Fn-2 = Fn + 1. Thus, by inductive
reasoning, we conjecture 2Fn – Fn-2 = Fn + 1 for n = 3 is a true
statement.
Note: This property of Fibonacci numbers can also be
established using deductive reasoning.
Check your progress
Determine whether each of the following statements about
Fibonacci numbers is true or false.
a. 2Fn ˃ Fn+1 for n ≥ 3
b. 2Fn + 4 = Fn+3 for n ≥ 3
1.3 Problem-Solving Strategies
Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy
Ancient mathematicians such as Euclid and Pappus were interested in
solving mathematical problems, but they were also interested in
heuristics, the study of the methods and rules of discovery and
invention. In the seventeenth century, the mathematician and
philosopher René Descartes (1596–1650) contributed to the field of
heuristics. He tried to develop a universal problem-solving method.
Although he did not achieve this goal, he did publish some of his ideas
in Rules for the Direction of the Mind and his better-known work
Discourse de la Methode.
1.3 Problem-Solving Strategies
Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy
Another mathematician and philosopher, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz
(1646–1716), planned to write a book on heuristics titled Art of
Invention. Of the problem-solving process, Leibnitz wrote, “Nothing is
more important than to see the sources of invention which are, in my
opinion, more interesting than the inventions themselves.”
One of the foremost recent mathematicians to make a study of
problem solving was George Polya (1887–1985). He was born in
Hungary and moved to the United States in 1940. The basic problem-
solving strategy that Polya advocated consisted of the following four
steps.
Polya’s Four-Step Problem-Solving Strategy
1. Understand the problem.
2. Devise a plan.
3. Carry out the plan.
4. Review the solution.
This part of Polya’s four-step strategy is often overlooked. You must
have a clear understanding of the problem. To help you focus on
understanding the problem, consider the following questions.
■ Can you restate the problem in your own words?
■ Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
■ Is there missing information that, if known, would allow you to solve
the problem?
■ Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the
problem?
■ What is the goal?
2. Devise a Plan Successful problem solvers use a variety of techniques when they
attempt to solve a problem. Here are some frequently used procedures.
■ Make a list of the known information.
■ Make a list of information that is needed.
■ Draw a diagram.
■ Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities.
■ Make a table or a chart.
■ Work backwards.
■ Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
■ Look for a pattern.
■ Write an equation. If necessary, define what each variable represents.
■ Perform an experiment.
■ Guess at a solution and then check your result.
3. Carry Out the Plan Once you have devised a plan, you must carry it
out.
■ Work carefully.
■ Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
■ Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you
may have to devise another plan or modify your existing plan.
4. Review the Solution Once you have found a solution, check the
solution.
■ Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
■ Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
■ Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution that
could apply to other problems.
Apply Polya’s Strategy (Make an organized list)
A baseball team won two out of their last four games. In how many
different orders could they have two wins and two losses in four
games?
Solution:
Understand the Problem There are many different orders. The team
may have won two straight games and lost the last two (WWLL). Or
maybe they lost the fi rst two games and won the last two (LLWW). Of
course there are other possibilities, such as WLWL.
Devise a Plan We will make an organized list of all the possible orders.
An organized list is a list that is produced using a system that ensures
that each of the different orders will be listed once and only once.
Carry Out the Plan Each entry in our list must contain two Ws and two Ls.
We will use a strategy that makes sure each order is considered, with no
duplications. One such strategy is to always write a W unless doing so will
produce too many Ws or a duplicate of one of the previous orders. If it is
not possible to write a W, then and only then do we write an L. This strategy
produces the six different orders shown below.
1. WWLL (Start with two wins)
2. WLWL (Start with one win)
3. WLLW
4. LWWL (Start with one loss)
5. LWLW
6. LLWW (Start with two losses)
Review the Solution We have made an organized list. The list has no
duplicates and the list considers all possibilities, so we are confident
that there are six different orders in which a baseball team can win
exactly two out of four games.
A true-false quiz contains five questions. In how many ways can a
student answer the questions if the student answers two of the
questions with “false” and the other three with “true”?
Solution:
Understand the Problem There are several ways to answer the
questions so that two answers are “false” and three answers are “true.”
One way is TTTFF and another is FFTTT.
Devise a Plan Make an organized list. Try the strategy of listing a T
unless doing so will produce too many Ts or a duplicate of one of the
previous orders in your list.
A true-false quiz contains five questions. In how many ways can a
student answer the questions if the student answers two of the
questions with “false” and the other three with “true”?
Solution:
Carry Out the Plan (Start with three Ts in a row.)
Review the Solution Each entry in the list has two Fs and three Ts. Since
the list is complete and has no duplications, we know that there are 10
ways for a student to mark two questions with “false” and the other
three with “true.”
In a basketball league consisting of 10 teams, each team plays each of
the other teams exactly three times. How many league games will be
played?
Solution:
Understand the Problem There are 10 teams in the league, and each
team plays exactly three games against each of the other teams. The
problem is to determine the total number of league games that will be
played.
Devise a Plan Try the strategy of working a similar but simpler problem.
Consider a league with only four teams (denoted by A, B, C, and D) in
which each team plays each of the other teams only once.
•Since
each of the four teams will play a game against each of the other
three, we might conclude that this would result in 4•3 = 12 games.
However, the diagram shows only six line segments. It appears that our
procedure has counted each game twice. For instance, when team A
plays team B, team B also plays team A. To produce the correct result,
we must divide our previous result, 12, by 2. Hence, four teams can
play each other once in = 6 games.
Carry Out the Plan Using the process developed above, we see that 10
teams can play each other once in a total of = 45 games. Since each
team plays each opponent exactly three times, the total number of
games is 45•3 = 135.
Review the Solution We could check our work by making a diagram
that includes all 10 teams represented by dots labeled A, B, C, D, E, F, G,
H, I, and J. Because this diagram would be somewhat complicated, let’s
try the method of making an organized list. The figure at the left shows
an organized list in which the notation BC represents a game between
team B and team C. The notation CB is not shown because it also
represents a game between team B and team C. This list shows that
45 games are required for each team to play each of the other teams
once. Also notice that the first row has nine items, the second row has
eight items, the third row has seven items, and so on. Thus 10 teams
require 9 + 8 + 7 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 45 games if each team plays
every other team once, and 45•3 = 135 games if each team plays
exactly three games against each opponent.
If six people greet each other at a meeting by shaking hands with one
another, how many handshakes will take place?
Solution:
Understand the Problem There are six people, and each person shakes
hands with each of the other people.
Devise a Plan Each person will shake hands with five other people (a
person won’t shake his or her own hand; that would be silly). Since
there are six people, we could multiply 6 times 5 to get the total
number of handshakes. However, this procedure would count each
handshake exactly twice, so we must divide this product by 2 for the
actual answer.
If six people greet each other at a meeting by shaking hands with one
another, how many handshakes will take place?
Solution:
Carry Out the Plan 6 times 5 is 30. 30 divided by 2 is 15.
Review the Solution Denote the people by the letters A, B, C, D, E, and
F. Make an organized list. Remember that AB and BA represent the
same people shaking hands, so do not list both AB and BA.
The method of making an organized list verifies that if six people shake
hands with each other, there will be a total of 15 handshakes.
A Mathematical Prodigy
Karl Friedrich Gauss (gous) was a scientist and mathematician. His work
encompassed several disciplines, including number theory, analysis,
astronomy, and optics. He is known for having shown mathematical
prowess as early as age three. It is reported that soon after Gauss
entered elementary school, his teacher assigned the problem of finding
the sum of the first 100 natural numbers. Gauss was able to determine
the sum in a matter of a few seconds. The following solution shows the
thought process he used.
•Carry
Out the Plan To find the sum of the 50 pairs, each with a sum of
101, Gauss computed 50101 and arrived at 5050 as the solution.
Review the Solution Because the addends in an addition problem can
be placed in any order without changing the sum, Gauss was confident
that he had the correct solution.
An Extension The sum 1 + 2 + 3 +…+ (n - 2) + (n - 1) + n can be found by
using the following formula.
A summation formula for the ﬁrst n natural numbers:
1 + 2 + 3 +…+ (n – 2) + (n - 1) + n =
Understand the Problem The sum of the first 100 natural numbers is
represented by 1 + 2 + 3 +…+98 + 99 + 100
Devise a Plan Adding the first 100 natural numbers from left to right
would be time consuming. Gauss considered another method. He
added 1 and 100 to produce 101. He noticed that 2 and 99 have a sum
of 101, and that 3 and 98 have a sum of 101. Thus the 100 numbers
could be thought of as 50 pairs, each with a sum of 101.
1 + 2 + 3 +…+98 + 99 + 100
101
101
101
Chapter 3 Summary
3.1 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning. Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a
general conclusion by examining specific examples. A conclusion based
on inductive reasoning is called a conjecture. A conjecture may or may
not be correct.
Deductive Reasoning. Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a
conclusion by applying general assumptions, procedures, or principles.
Counterexamples. A statement is a true statement provided it is true in
all cases. If you can find one case in which a statement is not true,
called a counterexample, then the statement is a false statement.
Chapter 3 Summary
3.2 Problem Solving with Patterns.
Sequences A sequence is an ordered list of numbers. Each number in a
sequence is called a term of the sequence. The notation a, is used to
designate the nth term of a sequence. A formula that can be used to
generate all the terms of a sequence is called an nth-term formula.
Difference Tables A difference table shows the differences between
successive terms of a sequence, and in some cases it can be used to
predict the next term in a sequence.
Fibonacci Sequence. Let Fn represent the nth Fibonacci number. Then
the terms in the Fibonacci sequence are given by the recursive
definition:
F1= 1, F2 = 1 and Fn = Fn-1 + Fn-2 for n ≥ 3
Chapter 3 Summary
3.3 Problem-Solving Strategies. Polya's Four-Step Problem-Solving
Strategy
2. Devise a plan.
3. Carry out the plan.
4. Review the solution.
Graphs. Bar graphs, circle graphs, and broken-line graphs are often
used to display data in a visual format.

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Problem Solving

Maximum numbers of regions 1 2 4 8 16 ?

second difference 12 18 24 30…

first difference 13 37 73 121 181…

second difference 24 36 48 60…

first difference 13 37 73 121 181…

first difference 13 37 73 121 181…

first difference 13 37 73 121 181 253

first difference 13 37 73 121 181 253

first difference 13 37 73 121 181 253

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