Addition and

Complement Rules
The Addition Rule for Probabilities

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The Addition Rule for Probabilities
Suppose you draw a single card from a standard deck of
playing cards. The sample space S consists of the 52 cards
of the deck. Therefore, n (S) = 52. Now consider the events

It is possible, on one draw, to satisfy the conditions of both

events: the ♠4 could be drawn. This card is an element of
both E1 and E2.

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The Addition Rule for Probabilities
Now consider the events

In this case, it is not possible to draw one card that satisfies

the conditions of both events. There are no elements
common to both sets. Two events that cannot both occur at
the same time are called mutually exclusive events.

The events E3 and E4 are mutually exclusive events,

whereas E1 and E2 are not.

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The Addition Rule for Probabilities

The probability of either of two mutually exclusive events

occurring can be determined by adding the probabilities of
the individual events.

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Example 1 – Probability of Mutually Exclusive
Events

Suppose a single card is drawn from a standard deck of

playing cards. Find the probability of drawing a 5 or a king.

Solution:
Let A = {♠5, ♥5, ♦5, ♣5} and B = {♠K, ♥K, ♦K, ♣K}. There
are 52 cards in a standard deck of playing cards; thus
n(S) = 52.

Because the events are mutually exclusive, we can use the

formula for the probability of mutually exclusive events.

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Example 1 – Solution cont’d

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The Addition Rule for Probabilities
Consider the experiment of rolling two dice. Let A be the
event of rolling a sum of 8 and let B be the event of rolling a
double (the same number on both dice).

These events are not mutually exclusive because it is

possible to satisfy the conditions of each event on one toss
of the dice—a could be rolled.

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The Addition Rule for Probabilities
Therefore, P (A or B), the probability of a sum of 8 or a
double, cannot be calculated using the formula for the
probability of mutually exclusive events.

However, a modification of that formula can be used.

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Exercises:

1. Consider the case of a small assembly plant with 50 employees.

Each worker is expected to complete work assignments on time
and in such a way that the assembled product will pass a final
inspection. On occasion, some of the workers fail to meet the
performance standards by completing work late or assembling a
defective product. At the end of a performance evaluation period,
the product manager found that 5 of the 50 workers completed
work late, 6 of the 50 workers assembled a defective product, and
2 of the 50 workers both completed work late and assembled a
defective product. After reviewing the performance data, the
production manager decided to assign a poor performance rating
to any employee whose work was either late or defective.
What is the probability that the production manager assigned an
employee a poor performance rating?

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Example 2 – Use the Addition Rule for Probabilities

The table at the right shows data from

an experiment conducted to test the
effectiveness of a flu vaccine. If one
person is selected from this population,
what is the probability that the person V: Vaccinated
F: Contracted the flu
was vaccinated or contracted the flu?

Solution:
Let V = {people who were vaccinated} and F = {people who
contracted the flu}.

These events are not mutually exclusive because there are

21 people who were vaccinated and who contracted the flu.
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Example 2 – Solution cont’d

The sample space S consists of the 490 people who

participated in the experiment.

The probability of selecting a person who was vaccinated

or who contracted the flu is approximately 60.2%.
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The Complement of an Event

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The Complement of an Event
Consider the experiment of tossing a single die once.
The sample space is

Now consider the event , that is, the event of

tossing a . The probability of E is

The complement of an event E, symbolized by Ec, is the

“opposite” event of E.
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The Complement of an Event
The complement includes all those outcomes of S that are
not in E and excludes the outcomes in E. For the event E
above, Ec is the event of not tossing a . Thus

Note that because E and Ec are opposite events, they are

mutually exclusive, and their union is the entire sample
space S. Thus so

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Example 3 – Find a Probability by the Complement Rule

The probability of tossing a sum of 11 on the toss of 2 dice

is . What is the probability of not tossing a sum of 11 on
the toss of 2 dice?

Solution:
Use the formula for the probability of the complement of an
event. Let E = {toss a sum of 11}.

Then Ec = {toss a sum that is not 11}.

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Example 3 – Solution cont’d

The probability of not tossing a sum of 11 is .

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Combinatoric Formulas and
Probability

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Example 4 – Find a Probability Using the Complement Rule

A die is tossed 4 times. What is the probability that a

will show on the upward face at least once?

Solution:
Let E = {at least one 6}. Then Ec = {no 6s}. To calculate the
number of elements in the sample space (all possible
outcomes of tossing a die 4 times) and the number of items
in Ec, we will use the counting principle.

Because on each toss of the die there are 6 possible

outcomes,

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Example 4 – Solution cont’d

On each toss of the die there are 5 numbers that are not
6s. Therefore,

When a die is tossed 4 times, the probability that a will

show on the upward face at least once is approximately
0.518.
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Combinatoric Formulas and Probability
In the next example, we use the combination formula

to find the number of ways in which r objects can be

chosen from n objects.

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Example 5 – Find a Probability Using the Combination Formula

Suppose a manufacturing process for tableware produces

40 dinner plates, of which 3 are defective. If 5 plates are
randomly selected from the 40, what is the probability that
at least one is defective?

Solution:
Let E = {at least one plate is defective}. It is easier to work
with the complement event, Ec = {no plates are defective}.

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Example 5 – Solution cont’d

To calculate the number of elements in the sample space

(all possible outcomes of choosing 5 plates from 40), use
the combination formula with n = 40 (the total number of
plates) and r = 5 (the number of plates that are chosen).
Then

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Example 5 – Solution cont’d

To find the number of outcomes that contain no defective

plates, all of the plates chosen must come from the 37
nondefective plates.

Therefore, we must calculate the number of ways in which 5

objects can be chosen from 37. Thus n = 37 (the number of
nondefective plates) and r = 5 (the number of plates chosen).

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Example 5 – Solution cont’d

The probability is approximately 0.338, or 33.8%.

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