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F a c t o r s & P h e n o m e n a
- major benefits
Asynch. Connection
Voltage Instability
Power Oscillators
- major benefits
Unbalanced load
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Power System Technology Navigator
Harmonics
Loop flow
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Flicker
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Energy Storage
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T e c h n o l o g y / S y s t e m
HVDC
HVDC Light
Minicap
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PSGuard
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Shunt reactor
Power T&D
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Static Freq. Converter Power Generation Solutions
SVC
Motors, Drives & Power Electronics
SVC for Industry
Asynchronous connection
The interconnected AC networks that tie the power
generation plants to the consumers are in most cases
large. The map below shows the European situation.
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Bottlenecks
Constrained transmission paths or interfaces in an
interconnected electrical system
The term Bottlenecks is often interchangeable to
congested transmission paths or interfaces. A
transmission path or interface refers to a specific set of
transmission elements between two neighboring
control areas or utility systems in an interconnected
electrical system. A transmission path or interface
becomes congested when the allowed power transfer
capability is reached under normal operating
conditions or as a result of equipment failures and
system disturbance conditions. The key impacts of
Bottlenecks are reduction of system reliability,
inefficient utilization of transmission capacity and
generation resources, and restriction of healthy market
competition.The ability of the transmission systems to
deliver the energy is dependent on several main
factors that are constraining the system, including
thermal constraints, voltage constraints, and stability
constraints. These transmission limitations are usually
determined by performing detailed power flow and
stability studies for a range of anticipated system
operating conditions. Thermal limitations are the most
common constraints, as warming and consequently
sagging of the lines is caused by the current flowing in
the wires of the lines and other equipment. In some
situations, the effective transfer capability of
transmission path or interface may have to be reduced
from the calculated thermal limit to a level imposed by
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Flicker
A fluctuation in system voltage that can lead to
noticeable changes in light output.
Voltage Flicker can either be a periodic or aperiodic
fluctuation in voltage magnitude i.e. the fluctuation
may occur continuously at regular intervals or only on
occasions. Voltage Flicker is normally a problem with
human perception of lamp ‘strobing’ effect but can also
affect power-processing equipment such as UPS
systems and power electronic devices. Slowly
fluctuating periodic flickers, in the 0.5 – 30.0Hz range,
are considered to be noticeable by humans. A voltage
magnitude variation of as little as 1.0% may also be
noticeable.
The main sources of flicker are industrial loads
exhibiting continuous and rapid variations in the load
current magnitude. This type of loads includes electric
arc furnaces in the steel industry, welding machines,
large induction motors, and wind power generators.
High impedance in a power delivery system will
contribute further to the voltage drop created by the
line current variation.
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Harmonics
Harmonics are associated with steady-state waveform
distortion of currents and voltages
Harmonics are components that make up a waveform
where each component has a frequency that is an
integral multiple of the fundamental frequency. The term
Harmonic is normally applied to waveform components
that have frequencies other than the fundamental
frequency. For a 50 Hz or 60Hz system the fundamental
frequency is 50HZ or 60Hz. A waveform that contains
any components other than the fundamental frequency
is non-sinusoidal and considered to be distorted.
Nonlinear loads draw currents that are non-sinusoidal
and thus create voltage drops in distribution conductors
that are non-sinusoidal. Typical nonlinear loads include
rectifiers, variable speed drives, and any other loads
based on solid-state conversion. Transformers and
reactors may also become nonlinear elements in a
power system during overvoltage conditions. Harmonics
create many concerns for utilities and customers alike.
Typical phenomena include neutral circuit overloading in
three phase circuits, motor and transformer overheating,
metering inaccuracies and control system malfunctions.
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Interruptions
Occur when the supply voltage drops below 10% of the
nominal value
An Interruption occurs whenever a supply’s voltage drops
below 10% of the rated voltage for a period of time no
longer than one minute. It is differentiated from a voltage
sag in that the late is not a severe power quality problem.
The term sag covers voltage drops down to 10% of
nominal voltage whereas an interruption occurs at lower
than 10%. A Sustained Interruption occurs when this
voltage decrease remains for more than one minute.
An interruption is usually caused by downstream faults that
are cleared by breakers or fuses. A sustained interruption
is caused by upstream breaker or fuse operation.
Upstream breakers may operate due to short-circuits,
overloads, and loss of stability on the bulk power system.
Loss of stability is usually characterized by out-of-tolerance
voltage magnitude conditions and frequency variations
which exceed electrical machine and transformer
tolerances. This phenomenon is often associated with
faults and deficiencies in a transmission system but can
also be the result of lack of generation resources. The
concerns created by interruptions are evident and include
inconvenience, loss of production time, loss of product,
and loss of service to critical facilities such as hospitals.
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Long lines
Long lines need special consideration in the planning of a power
system.
This transmission carries more than 12,000 MW over 800 km.
There is an HVDC system with two 600 kV bipoles of 3150 MW
each is direct route to São Paulo while the three 800 kV shunt
and series compensated AC lines has two intermediate
substations that allow connection to the local grids.
For long AC lines one must consider i.e. the reactive power
compensation, the transient stability and switching overvoltages
and how many intermediate substations one needs.
If the line length is longer than approx. 600 km one should also
consider if an HVDC alternative brings lower investment costs
and/or lower losses or if the inherent controllability of an HVDC
system brings with some other benefits.
Another factor to consider is the land use
The figure at the right compares two 3,000 MW HVDC lines for
the 1,000 km Three Gorges - Shanghai transmission, China, to
five 500 kV AC lines that would have been used if AC
transmission had been selected.
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Long cables
Cables have large capacitances and therefore, if fed with AC,
large reactive currents. Cables for DC are also less expensive
than for AC. One must distinguish between submarine cables
and land (underground) cables.
Submarine cables
Since no shunt reactor can be installed at intermediate points
(in the sea) and DC cables are less expensive, the majority of
cables > 50 km are for DC.
Underground cables
Long underground cables (> 50 km) have been generally
avoided since the cost for an overhead line was deemed to be
only 10 – 20 % of the cost for the cable. In many parts of the Laying of the 200 km Fenno-Skan HVDC cable (500 MW).
world it is now almost impossible to get permission to build a
new overhead line. HVDC Light ® has changed the cost
relation and the cable solution is less expensive than before.
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Loop Flow
Unscheduled power flow on a given transmission path in an
interconnected electrical system
The terms Loop Flow and Parallel Path Flow are sometimes
used interchangeable to refer to the unscheduled power flows,
that is, the difference between the scheduled and actual power
flows, on a given transmission path in an interconnected
electrical system. Unscheduled power flows on transmission
lines or facilities may result in a violation of reliability criteria
and decrease available transfer capability between neighboring
control areas or utility systems.
The reliability of an interconnected electrical system can be
characterized by its capability to move electric power from one Transmission Loop Flows for 1000 KW scheduled Transfer from
Area A to Area C in an Interconnected System
area to another through all transmission circuits or paths
between those areas under specified system conditions. The
transfer capability may be affected by the “contract path”
designated to wholesale power transactions, which assumes
that the transacted power would be confined to flow along an
artificially specified path through the involved transmission
systems. In reality, the actual path taken by a transaction may
be quite different from the designated routes, determined by
physical laws not by commercial agreements, thus involving the
use of transmission facilities outside the contracted systems.
These unexpected flow patterns may cause so-called Loop
Flow and Parallel Path Flow problems, which may limit the
amount of power these other systems can transfer for their own
purposes.
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Power Oscillations
Periodic variations in generator angle or line angle due to
transmission system disturbances
Oscillations of generator angle or line angle are generally
associated with transmission system disturbances and can
occur due to step changes in load, sudden change of generator
output, transmission line switching, and short circuits.
Depending on the characteristics of the power system, the
oscillations may last for 3 -20 seconds after a severe fault.
Drawn out oscillations that last for a few seconds or more are
usually the result of very light damping in the system and are
pronounced at power transfers that approach the line’s stability
limit. During such angular oscillation period significant cycle
variations in voltages, currents, transmission line flows will take
place. It is important to damp these oscillations as quickly as
possible because they cause mechanical wear in power plants
and many power quality problems. The system is also more
vulnerable if further disturbances occur.
The active power oscillations on a transmission line tend to limit
the amount of power that may be transferred, thus may result in
stability concerns or utilization restrictions on the corridors
between control areas or utility systems. This is due to the fact
that higher power transfers can lead to less damping and thus
more severe and possibly unstable oscillations.
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Unbalanced Load
A load which does not draw balanced current from a balanced
three-phases supply
An unbalanced load is a load which does not draw balanced
current from a balanced three-phase supply. Typical
unbalanced loads are loads which are connected phase-to-
neutral and also loads which are connected phase-to-phase.
Such loads are not capable of drawing balanced three-phase
currents. They are usually termed single-phase loads.
A single-phase load, since it does not draw a balanced three-
phase current, will create unequal voltage drops across the
series impedances of the delivery system. This unequal
voltage drop leads to unbalanced voltages at delivery points in
the system. Blown fuses on balanced loads such as three-
phase motors or capacitor banks will also create unbalanced
voltage in the same fashion as the single-phase and phase-
phase connected loads. Unbalanced voltage may also arise
from impedance imbalances in the circuits that deliver electricity
such as untransposed overhead transmission lines. Such
imbalances give the appearance of an unbalanced load to
generation units.
An unbalanced supply may have a disturbing or even
damaging effect on motors, generators, poly-phase converters,
and other equipment. The foremost concern with unbalanced
voltage is overheating in three-phase induction motors. The
percent current imbalance drawn by a motor may be 6 to 10
times the voltage imbalance, creating an increase in losses and
in turn an increase in motor temperature. This condition may
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Voltage Instability
Post-disturbance excursions of voltages at some buses in the
power system out of the steady operation region
Voltage instability is basically caused by an unavailability of
reactive power support in an area of the network, where the
voltage drops uncontrollably. Lack of reactive power may
essentially have two origins: firstly, a gradual increase of power
demand without the reactive part being met in some buses or
secondly, a sudden change in the network topology redirecting
the power flows in such a way that the required reactive power
cannot be delivered to some buses.
The relation between the active power consumed in the
considered area and the corresponding voltages is expressed
in a static way by the P-V curves (also called “nose” curves).
The increased values of loading are accompanied by a
decrease in voltage (except in case of a capacitive load). When
the loading is further increased, the maximum loadability point
is reached, beyond which no additional power can be
transmitted to the load under those conditions. In case of
constant power loads the voltage in the node becomes
uncontrollable and decreases rapidly. This may lead to the
partial or complete collapse of a power system.
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Benefits:
• Increased Power Transfer Capability
Links:
• Additional flexibility in Grid Operation
• HVDC transmission for controllability of power flow
• Improved Power and Grid Voltage Control • Applications in Power Systems: Interconnection
• An HVDC link can never be overloaded! • ABB HVDC Portal
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.
more about HVDC & Long Lines
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Benefits:
• Lower investment cost
• Lower losses
Links:
• HVDC submarine cables
• ABB HVDC Portal
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Benefits: Links:
• Increased Power Transfer Capability HVDC transmission for controllability of power flow
Applications in Power Systems: Interconnection
• Improved Power and Grid Voltage Control
HVDC Light System Interaction Tutorial.
• An HVDC link can never be overloaded!
ABB HVDC Portal
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Benefits:
• Reduced voltage fluctuations (flicker)
• Improved voltage profile along the line
• Easier starting of large motors
• Self-regulation
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Benefits:
• Increased power transmission capability through decreased total line
reactance
• Improved voltage profile along the line
• Reduced line losses
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Benefits:
• Increased power factor at the utility source
• Easier starting of large motors
• Improved voltage regulation and reactive power balance
• Self-regulation
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Optional
• Damping of other oscillatory modes (all in one time window, distinguished by different
colors)
• Frequencies of other oscillatory modes (all in one time window, distinguished by
different colours
Alarms
When the damping of any oscillation mode decreases to below a predefined value (in two
steps, first is alert, the second emergency alarm)
Read more
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Benefits:
• Increased power transfer
• Enhanced security
Short-term operation benefits:
Example: Estimation of relative frequency and damping
• Immediate awareness of the power system state in terms of the presence of
oscillations, thus an operator sees the urgency of the situation
• Indication of the frequency of an oscillation which may then be associated with the
known existing mode of the power system, i.e. the operator may distinguish if a local or
inter-area mode is excited
Long-term benefits:
• With the help of the stored data, long-term statistics can be collected and, based on
their evaluation, the system reinforcements can be performed (such as retuning of
Power System Stabilizers (PSS) to damp the frequencies appearing most often as
dangerous ones).
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