INTRODUCTION

 Retaining walls are the

structures used for
maintaining the ground
surface at different
elevations on either side of
it ;

 and also to retain earth or

the other loose material
which would not able to
stand vertically by itself .
Whenever the embankments
are involved in construction
of buildings having the
basements , the retainng
walls are mandatory .
Also in the bridge work the
wing walls and the
abutments etc are designed
as retaining walls to resist
the earth pressure along
with the superimposed loads
The material retained or
supported by a retaining
wall is called the backfill
which may have its top
surface horizontal or
inclined and such inclined
position of the backfill
lying before the horizontal
plane at the elevation of
the top of the wall is
called surcharge
 and its inclination to the
horizontal is called as the
surcharge angle
The retained material exerts a push on
structure and it tends to overturn and
sliding . The weight of the retaining
wall is of considerable significance in
achieving and maintaining the stability
of the entire system . the different types
of the retaining walls are as follows:

1] Gravity wall
2] Cantilever wall
3] Counter fort wall
4] Buttress wall
5] Bridge abutment
6] Box culvert
1 ] GRAVITY WALL:

A gravity wall is a plain

concrete and provides
stability by the virtue of
its own weight and
therefore it is rather
massive in size .
.

Cantilever wall :
The stability of the wall is
maintained essentially by
the weight of the earth on
the heel slab plus self
weight of the structure.
Couterfort wall :
 For the large
heights , in a cantilever retaining wall
, the bending moment develpoed in the
stem , heel slab and the toe slab
becomes very large and requries large
thickness .
 The bending
moment (and hence stem slab
thickness) can be cosiderably reduced
by introducing transceverce supports
called counterfort spaced at regular
intervals of @ 1/2 to 1/3 of the wall
height interconnecting the stem with
the heel slab.
Buttress wall :

 The buttress wall

is similar to the counterfort wall
except that the transverse
supports called buttress are
located in the front side
interconnecting stem with the toe
slab .
 Although buttress
are structurally more effective
than counterfort wall as it
provides face unstable space in
front at the wall .
Bridge abutment :

 A wall
type bridge abutment acts
similar to a cantilever
retaining wall except that
the bridge deck provides
an additional horizontal
restrained at the top .
Box culvert :
 A box culvert
is a box like structure
having either single cell or
multiple cells . It acts as a
closed rigid frame that not
only resists lateral earth
pressure but also vertical
load from the soil above it
or from both soil and
highway vehicals .
EARTH PRESSURE
1) Retaining walls are the
structure used to retain the
soil where there is desired
change in ground
elevation that exceeds the
angle of repose of soil.
2) Hence the wall must
resist the pressure created
by the soil ,
3) The important consideration
in proper designing and
installation of retaining wall
that the retained material is
moving forward or backward ,
which creates lateral earth
pressure .
4)Lateral earth pressure is
laterally small at the top &
increases towards the bottom
& it tries to overturn the wall .
The question of finding out the lateral earth pressure against the
retaining wall is one of the PROBLEM in Civil engineering field .
 The plastic state of stress  Rankine investigated the
when the failuer is stress condition ( with the
imminent was investicated use of Mohr-Coulomb
by Rankine in 1980 . equation) & find out the
 A lot of theoretical and passive and the active earth
experimental work has pressure on the soil.
been done in the field and  Accordingly the pressure
many theories and acting away from the soil
hypotheses have been is the active one &
proposed . towardes the soil is the
passive one
  Cp = (1+sinθ ) / (1-sin θ )
. Lateral
 earth pressure :
 Lateral force  θ = angle of repose or shearing
due to earth pressure costitutes the main force resistance
acting on the retaining wall , tending to make it
bond , slide and overturn .  Ca & Cp based on Rankines theory
 In general , the may be used for cohesionless soils
behaviour of lateral earth pressure is analogus to and level backfills .
that of a fluid withj the magnitude of the
pressure increasing nearly linearly with the  for sand ;
increasing depth .  = 30; Ca=1/3 ; Cp =
 P = C.y s. Z ;
 s= unit weight of the earth ;
3.o ;
 C= coefficient depends upon physical  When the backfill is sloped the
properties and also or expression for Ca should be
modified as ;
pressure in active or passive ; 
 Ca = (1-sin )/ (1+sin )
 Ca = cos θ - (C0S2θ-
COS2φ)1/2/


 cos θ +
(C0S2θ-COS2φ)1/2

 THE FOLLOWING CASES OF COHESIONLESS
BACKFILL WILL NOW BE CONSIDERED :
DRY OR MOIST BACKFILL WITH PARTIALLY SUBMERGED
NO SURCHARGE : BACKFILL

Where;
Where
A=ka .y s .z
A=Ka.yH1 ;
&
C= Ka.yH1 ;
B=Pa=ka .y .H
D= Ka.yH2 ;
 SUBMERGED
BACKFILL

Where
E=Ka.y’H ;
F=yw.H2;
G=Ka.y’H;
BACKFILL WITH UNIFORM SURCHARGE

Where
A=Ka.q B=Ka.q C=Ka.y.=Ka.q;
D=Ka.q E=Ka.y.H F=Ka.y.H
G=Ka.q
MATERIALS USED FOR RETAINING WALL:
Generlly the stone and the
concrete.
Also the special retaining
wall blocks crafted from
aggregate material .
EFFCT OF SURCHARGE ON A LEVEL BACKFILL :

 The distributed load Ws (Kn/m ) can

be treated as statically equivalent to an
additional (fictitious) height ;
 hs = Ws / e ;
 The
presence of the surcharge not only
adds to t6he gravity loading acting on
the heel slab , but also increases the
lateral pressure on the wall by ;
 Ca. e. hs= Ca.Ws;
 The total force
due to active pressure acting on the is
accordingly ;
 Pa = Pa1+Pa2 ;
 = Ca.Ws.h + Ca.
s .h.h/2 ;
EFFECT OF WATER ON THE BACKFILL
Ground water has a great effect Hence for stability point of
on the stability of the retaining view retaining wall is
wall. provided with the seepage
If ground water behined the holes which allows the
wall is not properly drainage , collected water to escape .
it will create an additional
hydrostatic pressure .
The proper drainage system for
water reduces the hydrostatic
pressure and provides the
stability of material .
EFFECT OF WATER IN THE BACKFILL :
 When water accumulates in
the backfill , it can raise the
lateral pressure on the wall
to Every high levels.
 If the water in the backfill
does not have an escape
route , it wall built up a
hydroscopic pressure on the
wall , causing it to behave
like dam .
INTERNATIONAL BUILDING CODE REQUIRES THE RETAINING WALL TO BE DESINGED AGINST
A
1)OVERTURNING ,
2) SLIDING EXCESSIVE FOUNDATION
3) PRESSURE AND
4) WATER UPLIFT PRESSURE
THAT MAY BE DESINGED FOR A SAFETY FACTOR OF 1.5 AGAINST LATERAL SLIDING AND OVERTURNING

STABILITY REQUIREMENT :
 The clause 20 of IS 456-2000
species that the factor of a safety against overturning and
sliding should not be less than 1.4 further more as the
stabilising forces are due to dead loads , the code specifies that
these stabilising forces should be factored by a value of 0.9
calculating the factor of safety .
OVERTURNING :
 If the retaining wall
structure tend to overturn , it would do so with the toe
acting as the center of rotation .
 Mo = (Pacos )* (h'/3) = [ Ca. s.
(h'*h'*h)/6 ]. cos .
 = Ca
ys.h'*h'/2*(h'/3)*cos
 = Ca. s. h'.h.h'/6*cos
 Mr= W(L-Xw)+Pasin *L;
W denotes the total weight of reinforced concrete
structure plus the retained earth resting on the
footing .
 for level backfill with surcharge :
 Mo= Pa1(h/2) + Pa2(h/3) ;
 Mr = W(L-Xw) for ( = 0);
 F.S.(overturning) = 0.9 Mr/Mo >=
1.4 ;
SLIDING :

 The resistance against

sliding is essentially provided
by the friction between the base slab and
the supporting soil ;
 F=u .R
;
 Where R=W :- Resultant soil
pressure acting on the footing base.
 = coefficient of static friction
between concrete and soil
 = 0.3 to o.6 ( silt or
rock)
 F.S. = 0.9F/Pa. cos θ>=
1.4
SHARE KEY:

 When active pressure are relatively

high (as when surcharge is involved) it will be
generally difficult to mobilise the required F.S.
against sliding .
 In such situtaion it is advantageous to
use the shear key projecting below the footing base
and extending throughout the length of the wall .
 Passive pressure in expected to
develope (resistance) .
Pp=Cp s(h22-h12)/2

The shear key is best position df at a distance Xsk

from the toe in such a way that the flexural
reinforced from the stem can be extented straight
into the shear key near toe .

Cp . s[(h2-h1) + h1] /2 * ( h2-h1) = Cp s( h2/2)

*( h2-h1)
PROPORTIONING AND DESIGN OF CANTILEVER AND
COUNTERFORT WALLS : 
position ;
Position of stem on base slab for economic

 The economical design of the

retaining wall can be obtained by proportioning the base slab
so as to align thje vertical soil reaction R at the base with the
front face of the wall .(stem)

Consider the typical case of a level backfill . The location of
the resultant soil reaction R , is dependant on the magnitude
and the location of the resultant vertical load W, which in
turn depends on the dimension x.

 X may be expressed as a fraction

x , of the full width L of the base slab (x= x) . Assuming an
average unit weight sfor all the material (concrete +soil)
behind the front face of the stem and neglecting the
weight of the concrete in the toe slab .

 R=W= eL.X = eh( x.L)
Thus , for any selected distribution of the

2 R x - x* x should be maximum
base pressure R is constant and the
required base width L=LR / R
 R= x
considering static equilibrium and taking  RL= xL =x
moment e resultant point e , assume Xw=
Hence for economical design , the

xL/2 ;
 w( RL- x.L/2) =Pa h/3
soil pressure resultant should live
; up with the front face of the wall .
 ehL*L*L( R x- x*  WIDTH OF BASE :
x)=Ca eh.h.h/6  (L/h )MIN = xLMIN= RLMIN=
 L/h = (Ca/3)/ 2 R x - x*
x/2)
h (Ca/3)
for an economical proportioning for the
 The effect of surcharge or sloping

given height of wall (h) , the lenght of base backfill may be taken into account
(L) must be minimum. L/h should be , apporximately by replacing (h +
minimum .
hs) or h' respectively.

Ex 1 : Design the cantilever retaining
wall which is required to support
bank of earth 4.0m high above the
ground level of the toe side of the
wall . backfill is levelled but subjected
toa surcharge pressure 40Kn/m*m
(Due to construction of building )
take;
 fy= 415N/mm*mm;
 fck= 20N/mm*mm ;
 Depth below the ground
level = 1250 mm;
 sbc= 160N/m*m;
 e= 16Kn/m*m;
.
 1] DATA GIVEN :
2].Earth pressure
 h =4.0+ 1.25
=5.25; coefficient ;
 = 30 ;  Ca=1-
 = 0.5 ;
sin \1+sin =1/3;
 e=
16Kn/m*m;  Cp=

1/Ca= 3.0 ;
Ws=40Kn/m*m ;
 Equivalent height of the earth
surcharge ;
 hs= Ws/ e= 40/ 16=
2.5;
 h+ hs = 5.25+1.25= 7.75;
2] PRILIMINARY PROPORTIONS :  3] STABILITY AGAINST
 . Thickness of the footing base slab = 0.08*7.75=
620mm; OVERTURNING :
 
 Assume a stem thickness of 650 mm at the base of
the stem . Tapering to a value of 200mm at the top of the  . Forces due to active pressure (per
stem . meter length of the wall )
 . For an economical proportioning of the length L Of
 Pa1 = CaWsh=
the base slab , it will be assumed that the vertical reaction R 0.33*40*5.25=70Kn;
at the footing base is in line with the front face of the stem .
For such condition , the length of the heel slab ;  Pa2 = Ca. e. h*h/2=
1.33*16*5.25*5.25/2= 73.5Kn;
 x = (Ca/ 3)
 = (h + hs )* (0.33/ 3*7.75)
 Pa= Pa1+ Pa2
 =2.58; =70+73.5= 143.5Kn;
Let x= 2.6m ;
  Overturning moment :
. Assuming a triangular soil pressure distribution below the

base ,  Mo= Pa1h/2+ Pa2 h/3
 L = 1.5x ;  = (70*5.25/2) +
 = 1.5* 2.6= 3.9m ;
(73.5*5.25/3) ;
 = 312.75 Kn.m;

FORCE DISTANCE FROM TOE
MOMENT IN
 Kn.m

W1 = 16*(2.5+5.25-.62)*2.4= 273.8
 1.2M 328.60 kN.M


W2 = 25*0.20*4.63 = 23.15 kN
 2.5M 57.9kN.M ;

w3 =(25-16) * (0.5*0.45*4.63) = 9.40 kN 2.25 M

 21.5 kN.M

W4= 0.620* 3.9 * 25 = 1 .95 kN

 1.95 M 117.88 KN.m

 W =366.8 kN M=
525.53kN.M
. Distance of resultant force from heel

 xw= Mw / w =
525\366.8=1.432M
STABILISING MOMENT :
 Mr = W(L-Xw)
 = 366.8 ( 3.9-1.432)
 = 905.3kn.m (per meter length of wall) ;

4] SOIL PRESSURE AT FOOTING BASE :

 Resultant vertical reaction = R=w = 366.8
Kn;
 Distance of R from heel = LR
=(Mw+Mo)/R;
 =(525.4+
312.4)/366.8 ;
 = 2.284m;
 Indicating that the resultant lies well inside
the middle third of the base ;
 6e/L = 6* 0.334/ 3.9 =
0.514m ;
 qmax = R/L(1+6e/L ) = 366.8/
3.9*(1+0.514) = 142.4Kn/m*m; <qa =
150KN/m*m
 qmin = R/L(1-6e/L ) = 366.8/3.9 *(1-
0.524) = 45.7Kn/m*m;
5] STABILITY AGAINST SLIDIND :
 Sliding force = Pa= 143.5Kn(per meter
length of wall)

 Resisting force (ignoring passive

pressure ) ;
 F=u .R ;
 F.S.(sliding) = 0.9F/Pa= 0.9*183.4/ 143.5=
1.15 < 1.4
 Hence , a shear key needs to be provided to
generate the balance force through passive
resistance .
Required Pp = 1.40* 143.5- 0.9 *183.4 = 35.8Kn;
Providing a shear key 300mm*400mm at 1.6m
from toe .
 h2=0.95+0.3+1.6tan30
= 2.17 m ;
SECTIONAL VIEW OF R.W.
A=16MMφ @120MM C-C. C=12MM φ 240MM C-C
B=16MM φ @100MM C-C D=12MM φ 1OOMMC-C
 Ex :- Determine the suitable
dimensions of a cantilever retaining
wall , which is required to support a
bank of earth 4.0 m high above the
ground level on the toe side of the
wall .
 Consider the backfill surface to be
inclined at an angle of 15 with
horizontal . B.C. of the soil is
160Kn/m*m
 (at depth 1.25m) , s =16Kn/m*m ;
angle of shearing resistance is 30 .
 Assume the coefficient of friction
between soil and concrete be 0.5 .
 SOLUTION :
 1] DATA GIVEN :
 h= 4+1.25=
 3] PRILIMINARY
PROPORTIONS :
 Thickness of the footing
base slab = 0.08h= 0.08*5.25=
0.42 m= 420mm
 Assuming a stem
thickness of 400mm at the base of
the stem , tapering to a value of
150mm at the top of the wall .
 For an economical
proportioning of the length L of
the base slab in the line with front
face of the stem . For such
condition ,(assuming the height
above the top of the wall to be
4] STABILITY AGAINST OVERTURNING :
 FORCES
 DISTANCE
 Force due to active pressure ; MOMENT
 Pa = Ca . e . h'*h'/2 ; W1= 16*1.85* (5.25-0.42)=143kN
 0.925
132.30kN.M
 where h' = h+ Xtan ;
W2= 16*1.85*1.85Tan15/2=7.4Kn
 0.617
 = 5250 + 200tan 15 ; 4.60Kn.m
 = 5786 mm ; w3=25*0.15*(5.25-0.42) =18.1Kn
 1.925
Pa= 0.373 *16* 5.786* 5.786 / 2 = 99.9 Kn (per
 34.80Knm
meter length of wall ) ; W4 =(25-16)*4.63*0.5*0.3=65kN
 1.75
Pa cos =0.373* 16* 5.786* 5.786/ 2* cos15 =
 11.40 knm
96.5 Kn/m; W5= 25*3.0*0.42= 31.5Kn
 1.50
 OVERTURNING MOMENT : 47.5 Knm
 Mo = (pa. cos ) h'/3= 96.5 Pasin = 25 *3.0*0.42= 25.9 Kn

*5.786/3= 186.1 Kn.m ;  W=232.4Kn M= 230.3Kn.m
Line of action of resultant of vertical forces with
 Distance of resultant force from heel ;

respect to heel can be located by applying  Xw = Mw/W = 230.3/ 232.4 = 0.99m
statics , considering 1m length of wall .  STABILISING MOMENT @TOE ;

 Mr = W(L-Xw) = 232.3(3- 0.99)
=466.2 Kn.m(running per meter
length of the wall) ;
 F.S.(OVERTURNING) =
0.9Mr/ Mo= 0.9*466.92/186.1 = 2.26
>1.4 hence safe;
 Resultant vertical reactiopn R=W =
232.4 Kn
 Distance of R from heel Lr =(Mw+
Mo ) /R = (230.3+186.1)/232.4 = 1.79
 eccentricity e= LR-L/2 = 1.79-
3.0/2 =0.29 <L/6 =0.5
 Hence the resultant lies within the
middle third (L/6) at the base, which is
desirable ;
 6e/L = 6*o.29/ 3.0 =
0.58 ;
5] STABILITY AGAINST SLIDING :

 Sliding force = Pa cos = 96.5 Kn;
 Resisting force (ignoring pressure
on the toe side)
 F= . R = 0.5*232.4 =
116.15Kn
 F.S.(sliding) = 0.9*F/ Pa
cos = 0.9 *116.15 /96.5 = 1.08 <1.40
Hence a shear key may be provided to mobilise the

balance force through passive resistnce .
Assume shear key 300mm*300mm at adistance

1300 mm from toe .
 h2 = 0.95+ 0.3 + 1.3tan 30 =
2.001m
 Pp = Cp. e.(h2 . h2 -h1. h1) /
2;
 F.S.(sliding) = 0.9 * (116.4+ 74.44)/
96.5 = 1.78 >1.4 Hence safe ;