Jan 2020.

Lecture plan for topics :

Solid Waste Management and Hazardous Wastes

1
 Solid Waste Management
'Garbage that is not produced
does not have to be collected‘
Objectives:
• to reduce the amount of solid waste that has to be
buried or burned.
• to reduce pollution associated with mining, use, and
disposal of resources
• to reduce the rate of consumption of scarce resources

2
Integrated Solid Waste Management
1. Source Reduction:
• Reduce toxicity
• Less packaging
• Product reuse
• More durable products
• On-site mulching and composting
2. Recycling
• Collecting
• Processing
• Using recycled materials in products
• Composting
3. Disposal
• Combustion with energy recovery
• Landfill
• Incineration without energy recovery

3
ISO definition of LCA:
"Compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and the potential environmental
impacts of a product system throughout its life cycle" (ISO 14040: 1997)
The main goal of the method is to lessen the environmental impacts of products and
services by guiding the decision-making process.

4
 LCA = Life Cycle Analysis

03/21/20 5
• LCA is the only method (ISO standards) that
assesses the environmental impacts of a product
or activity (a system of products) over its entire
life cycle.
• A holistic approach that takes into account:
• Extraction and treatment of raw materials
• Educational tools
• Product manufacturing
• Transport and distribution
• Product use
• Product’s end of life
6
https://www.instarmac.co.uk/linear-vs-circular-economy/ 7
 Terminology: REDUCE, REUSE, RECYCLE
• Reduce consumption of food, products, etc to
produce less or no wastes. The best way to
manage waste.
• Reusing a product in the same application for
which it was originally intended saves energy
and resources.
• Recycling is the term used to describe the act
of recovering materials from the wastestream
and reprocessing them so they become raw
materials for new applications.

8
Lets names Recyclables and Non-Recyclables items:

Polyethylene Ethylene
terephthalate Vinyl Acetate
03/21/20 9
 Advantages of Recycling

• Environmental conservation and protection. ...

• Reduce consumption of energy. ...
• Reduce air and water pollution. ...
• Global warming mitigation. ...
• Limit wastes in landfills. ...
• Spreads environmental awareness. ...
• Make and save money. ...

10
 Recycling Challenges
•  More pollution and energy consumption.
•  Result in more pollutants.
• Increased processing cost and low-quality
jobs.
• Require stricter and more stringent
implementation.
• Good products are not guaranteed.
• Generally ineffective. WHY?

11
 Paper Recycling
Problems
Chlorination produces
dioxins/furans
Inks are petrochemical based
Acid used to break fibers
shortens life
Coating of high gloss paper
Demand for high quality paper
Glues, laminates, plastics, inks
not water soluble
Paper can only be reused 4-12
times, always need a virgin
source
Steel Recycling
Expanding economy –
increased steel demands;
China and India biggest
markets
36.4% of steel is recycled
Use of plastic for automobiles
is a problem
One ton steel recycled saves
2500 lb of iron ore, 1000 lb
of coal, 40 lb of limestone,
and significant energy
savings
12
 Aluminum Recycling
• About 51% of Al cans is recycled
• 20 years ago it took 19 aluminum cans to make
1 lb. Today, aluminum beverage cans are
lighter and it takes 29 cans to make 1 lb.
• Americans throw away enough aluminum
every three months to rebuild our entire
commercial air fleet.
• Making new aluminum cans from used cans
takes 95 % less energy and 20 recycled cans
can be made with the energy needed to
produce one can using virgin ore.
• Domestic recycling has declined recently due
to collection cost 13
 Glass Recycling
• Glass always lags other recyclables
• Alternative markets needed – grind for
construction fill, “glassphalt,” fiberglass
• Transportation of heavy glass is expensive
• Raw materials are inexpensive
• Contamination of melted is an issue (different
colors)
• Reuse used to be common practice; however as
manufacturing plants became larger and
decreased in number, bottles had to be carried
further for refilling.
• More colored glass is imported than used
domestically
14
 Plastic Recycling
• Problems
– Light weight, bulky, low density
– Wide variety of polymers
– Concerns over contamination for reuse
– Difficult to differentiate among types
• PET and HDPE have high prices due to
domestic and international demand
• Curbside recycling is down, driving prices up
• Higher prices for petroleum makes virgin
plastic more expensive
15
All the plastic you can and cannot recycle
(https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-45496884)

16
Some countries are refusing to take any more of our waste.

China and Thailand have banned waste imports

Malaysia is considering banning imports of waste plastic.

These bans are having an effect on the prices paid for waste
plastic.

And this year the prices of the more contaminated plastics

have fallen below zero, meaning companies are now
expecting to be paid to take them away.

Design: Debie Loizou. Development: Eleanor Keane.

17
 Malaysia issues permanent ban on import of plastic
waste - Nation | The Star Online (October 26, 2-18)
• PUTRAJAYA: Malaysia has issued a permanent ban on the import of
plastic waste effective Friday (Oct 26), says Zuraida Kamaruddin.
• The Housing and Local Government Minister said the country would
also be phasing out the import of other types of plastic within three
years.
• The decision was made in a meeting Friday between Zuraida's
ministry and the Ministry of Energy, Science, Technology,
Environment and Climate Change; Ministry of Water, Land and
Natural Resources; and the Ministry of International Trade and
Industry.
• The government had prior to this imposed a three-month freeze on
the issuance of approved permits (AP) for the import of plastic
waste.

• image: https://content.thestar.com.my/smg/settag/name=lotame/tags=all
• Read more at https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2018/10/26/malaysia-issues-permanent-
ban-on-import-of-plastic-waste/#W8MoPJwdJAEy42L3.99 

18
 News : Malaysia's the fattest country in Asia, so why
aren't we spending on our health?
• A study published in the renowned British medical journal, The Lancet, showed
that Malaysia is the most obese country in Asia.
• The 2015 National Health and Morbidity survey supported this fact by revealing
that nearly half of the Malaysian population aged 18 and above (47.7 percent)
were overweight or obese.
• “Obesity used to be just a term to describe excessive body weight. Today, obesity
is also known as disease.
• “Many are unaware that obesity is a catalyst for chronic diseases like high blood
pressure, high cholesterol and diabetes. Obesity rapidly increases the risk of
chronic disease,” he said.
• The survey also showed a rapid rise in chronic diseases among Malaysians.
• "We can see that 30.3 percent of Malaysians aged 18 and above suffer from high
blood pressure, 47.7 percent have high cholesterol levels and 17.5 percent have
diabetes,” he said.

https://www.nst.com.my/news/2016/10/179844/malaysias-fattest-country-asia-so-why-arent-we-spending-our-health

03/21/20 19
 WEEE: Wastes of Electrical and Electronic
Equipment
~ 2 mil tons /yr of WEEE items are discarded by householders and
companies in the UK alone.
There are ten broad categories of WEEE currently outlined within the
Regulations 2014:
1. Large household appliances e.g. fridges, cookers, microwaves, washing
machines and dishwashers
2. Small household appliances e.g. vacuum cleaners, irons, toasters and
clocks
3. IT and telecommunications equipment – e.g. personal computers,
copying equipment, telephones and pocket calculators
4. Consumer equipment e.g. radios, televisions, hi-fi equipment,
camcorders ad musical instruments
5. Lighting equipment e.g. straight and compact fluorescent tubes and
high intensity discharge lamps
6. Electrical and electronic tools – e.g. drills, saws and sewing machines,
electric lawnmowers 20
Updated WEEE Regulation 2014, UK:
Recycling of WEEE is a specialist part of the waste and
recycling industry.  It is a rapidly growing sub-sector
due largely to the implementation of original directive
in 2006.

7. Toys, leisure and sports equipment e.g. electric trains, games

consoles and running machines
8. Medical devices e.g. (non infected) dialysis machines, analysers,
medical freezers and cardiology equipment
9. Monitoring and control equipment e .g. smoke detectors,
thermostats and heating regulators
10. Automatic dispensers e.g. hot drinks dispensers and money
dispensers

21
 Solid Waste and Public Cleansing
Management Act 2007
• From 1st Sept, 2015 households in Kuala Lumpur, Putrajaya,
Pahang, Johor, Malacca, Negri Sembilan, Perlis and Kedah are
required to separate their waste.
• Beginning June 1, 2016, households that do not separate their
waste will be compounded RM50 for the first offence, and
RM100 and RM500 for subsequent offences.
• If the compounds are not paid, the offender can be taken to
court to face a maximum fine of RM1,000. –

Collection accounts for

50 – 70 % of a Solid Waste Management
budget! – tax payers money! 22
Separation of commingled recyclables and mixed wastes.

23
 Nov, 2015 – The Paris Agreement  on GHG.
Dec, 2019 – UN Climate Change Conference

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Timeline-of-International-Legislation-about-green-
port_fig5_319008249 24
Kyoto Protocol (intr 1997)
• An international
agreement that aims to
reduce carbon dioxide
emissions and the presence of
greenhouse gases. Countries
that ratify the Kyoto Protocol
are assigned maximum carbon
emission levels and can
participate in carbon credit
trading. Emitting more than
the assigned limit will result in
a penalty for the violating
country in the form of a
lower emission limit in the
following period.
Carbon credit
• A permit that allows the
holder to emit one ton of
carbon dioxide.
• Credits are awarded to
countries or groups that
have reduced their green
house gases below their
emission quota. 
• Carbon credits can be
traded in the international
market at their current
market price.
25
 Carbon Trade
•For example, if an •For example, if Country A
environmentalist group plants exceeds its capacity of GHG
enough trees to reduce emissions and Country B has a surplus of
capacity, a monetary
by one ton, the group will be agreement could be made that
awarded a credit.  would see Country A pay
•If a steel producer has an Country B for the right to use
emissions quota of 10 tons, its surplus capacity.
but is expecting to produce 11 The Kyoto Protocol presents
tons, it could purchase this nations with the challenge of
carbon credit from the reducing greenhouse gases
environmental group.  and storing more carbon. A
nation that finds it hard to
•The carbon credit system is to meet its target of reducing
reduce emissions by having GHG could pay another nation
countries honor their emission to reduce emissions by an
quotas and offer incentives for appropriate quantity.  
being below them. 26
 What happens after the wastes are collected?
What are the treatment methods?

WASTES treatment technologies:

1. Valorization of Food wastes
2. Sanitary Landfill
3. Composting
4. Incineration (combustion)
5. Pyrolysis
6. Gasification
27
 First, lets define which processes
are involved in the solid wastes
decomposition.

What are the reactions involved?

What are the necessary conditions

for these processes?
03/21/20 28
03/21/20 29
 1. Valorization of Food Wastes

• The term “waste valorization” refers to any

industrial processing activities aimed at
reusing, recycling, or composting from wastes,
useful products, or sources of energy.

• Dictionary: 1. To establish and maintain the

price of (a commodity) ; 2. To give or assign a
value to, especially a higher value.

30
 1. Valorization of Food Wastes

31
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S096085241730980X
1. Valorization of Food Wastes: 8 examples
(https://www.eptes.com/valorization-of-food-waste-the-8-methods-to-be-implemented/)

Orange Peels
Limonene in orange waste makes
composting or anaerobic digestion
difficult to achieve. Limonene
extraction is easy and fast. Limonene
oil is sought after on the market for its
olfactory and antibacterial value.

Coffee grounds
Coffee grounds can contain up to 20%
of oil that can be extracted before
composting or anaerobic digestion.
Coffee oil can be sold on the market
and replace palm oil.

32
1. Valorization of Food Wastes: 8 examples
(https://www.eptes.com/valorization-of-food-waste-the-8-methods-to-be-implemented/)

Pectin of apples or oranges

Plant pectin can be removed from
apple or orange peels and scraps and
resold on the market for applications in
food and pharma.

Chitin and Chitosan of Crustaceans

Chitin can be recovered by an easy
process from crustacean residues
such as crabs or shrimp. Chitin and its
derivative the Chitosan are a product
of high value as they are used in the
engineering of cartilage tissues.

33
(https://www.eptes.com/valorization-of-food-waste-the-8-methods-to-be-implemented/)
1. Valorization of Food Wastes: 8 examples
(https://www.eptes.com/valorization-of-food-waste-the-8-methods-to-be-implemented/)

Whey Protein and Lactose

Whey is a residue of cheese
production. Protein and lactose can be
removed and marketed as food
supplements.

Ferulic acid from rice husks

The residues from rice production
contain a high concentration of ferulic
acid. The latter has a high commercial
value on the market and can be
marketed for applications in pharma
and cosmetics.
34
(https://www.eptes.com/valorization-of-food-waste-the-8-methods-to-be-implemented/)
1. Valorization of Food Wastes: 8 examples
(https://www.eptes.com/valorization-of-food-waste-the-8-methods-to-be-implemented/)

Vanilla
Wood residues or coconut fiber are
rich in lignin. The process is well
known and makes it possible to
produce vanilla from lignin, which can
be sold on the market.

Fibers and starch from banana

peels
Banana peels are rich in fiber, starch
and banana flavours. These
constituents can be extracted from the
banana peel and sold on the market.

35
(https://www.eptes.com/valorization-of-food-waste-the-8-methods-to-be-implemented/)
2. Landfill
LET’S NAME THE PROBLEMS WITH SUCH WASTE DISPOSAL PRACTICE:

Long term soil, ground and

GHG: methane,
surface water pollution
CO2, H2S, VOC,

https://ensia.com/features/methane-landfills/
36
2. Sanitary Landfill

GHG

Infectious
diseases ,
Odor,
Public
perception

Soil & Ground

water pollution
37
2. Sanitary Landfill

38
https://www.slideshare.net/akashtk/landfilling
2. Sanitary Landfill

Sanitary Landfill as an Anaerobic Reactor

The landfill degradation process is based on the anaerobic degradation,

i.e. anaerobic bacteria digest organic wastes at the absence of oxygen. 39
2. Sanitary Landfill

https://www.rese
archgate.net/figu
re/Landfills-in-
Malaysia_tbl1_2
58224407

40
2. Sanitary Landfill

https://www.researchgate.net/fig
ure/Landfills-site-in-
Malaysia_fig1_258224407
41
2. Sanitary Landfill
- Design
-Essential components

Leachate Collection
System

Waste

Sand Drainage and

Protective Layer
Geotextile

Geomembrane Liner

Leachate
Clay Liner Coarse
Collection
Drainage
Pipe
Material

42
2. Sanitary Landfill
Monitoring wells
• One well immediately adjacent to downgradient
edge of filled area at point where leachate plume
meets GW. Screened to intercept water table
• One well in area upgradient from landfill

Landfill

Groundwater
Direction

43
2. Sanitary Landfill

Control and Collection of landfill gas.

Gas Wells

Gas Flares

Additional: utilization of
landfill gas for heating
purposes at the nearby
facilities

44
2. Sanitary Landfill
Stormwater Control & Management
Direct surface water run-off away from the landfill

Final Cover
Bird Control

45
2. Sanitary Landfill
Leachate Management – Storage & Treatment

How this type of treatment is called? And this one

is?

46
 2. Leachate Management – Storage & Treatment

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Schematic-diagram-of-the-landfill-leachate-treatment-
process-in-the-landfill-of-Sousse_fig2_318310862
47
 Leachate Management – Storage & Treatment

https://slideplayer.com/slide/3500991/ 48
2. Sanitary Landfill
Waste Containment Many Alternative Caps:
• Capillary barriers (sand
Caps/Covers and gravel become water
barriers!) Clay covers
(historically the most used,
likely the least
dependable)
Cover soil
• Composite covers with soil
and vegetation
Geosynthetic drainage
• Single-barrier covers
Geomembrane (geomembrane or GCL)
with soil and erosion
Geosynthetic Clay Liner protection
Gas collection
• Exposed geomembrane
Gas collection covers
Geotextile
• Water-balance soil covers
(with and without capillary
Waste
breaks

Common containment regulations require different cap/cover sealing

systems for nonhazardous and hazardous containments.
49
 2. Landfill design components. SUMMARY.

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Figure-1-A-cross-section-of-a-municipal-solid-waste-landfill-
Source_fig1_330293343 50
 2. Landfill design components. SUMMARY.
1. Selection of location: away from residential area, away from water
catchments, slope stability
2.Sealing the impermeable synthetic liner : strong material, i.e.
composite material that can last for few decades without degradation;
tightly sealed joints to prevent any leakage;
3.Monitoring wells to facilitate ground water samples collection (water
quality)
4.Leachate Collection System: Slotted Collection Pipes made of strong
metal alloys, corrosion resistant
5. Biogas collection system
6.Daily Cover to prevent wastes disturbance by wind, precipitation,
rodents, birds, insects etc
7.Storm-water Control & Management ie Direct surface water run-off
away from the landfill to prevent excess of moisture accumulation at landfill
8.Final Cover, thick layers, durable and lasting for many decades, e.g
Waste Containment Caps/Covers
9. Leachate Management – Storage and treatment. 51
 Degradation of organic matter:

C6H12O6 + 6O2       6CO2 + 6H2O + 2900 kJ/mol

Glucose + Oxygen  Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy

AEROBIC
===================================
===================================
ANAEROBIC

C6H12O6      2C3H6O3 + 120 kJ/mol

Glucose       Lactic acid + Energy

52
53
Nitrogen Cycle: aerobic & anaerobic reactions

http://bioenergyrus.blogspot.com/2008/05/nitrogen-cycle.html

54
https://www.slideshare.net/UrviShelters/biodigester-at-arna-meadows
55
Decomposition of organic wastes at Landfill:

56
2. Sanitary Landfill
Degradable particulate organic material
(Proteins Carbohydrates and Lipids)

Hydrolysis
Aerobic Inert Soluble

degradation Amino Acids & Sugars Long chain fatty

acids

Fermentation of
Valerate, Butyrate,
Anaerobic
Amino acids & & Propionate Oxidation of
Sugars LCFA
Anaerobic
Anaerobic Oxidation of
Acids
degradation
Acetate Hydrogen

Acetotrophic Hydrogenotrophic
methanogenesis methanogenesis
Methane
57
2. Sanitary Landfill

58
 Table 2-1: Typical Landfill Gas Components 2. Sanitary Landfill
Component Percent by Characteristics
Volume
methane 45–60 Methane is a naturally occurring gas. It is colorless andodorless. Landfills
are the single largest source of U.S. man-made methane emissions
carbon dioxide 40–60 Carbon dioxide is naturally found at small concentrations in the
atmosphere (0.03%). It is colorless, odorless, and slightly acidic.
nitrogen 2–5 Nitrogen comprises approximately 79% of the atmosphere. It is odorless,
tasteless, and colorless.
oxygen 0.1–1 Oxygen comprises approximately 21% of the atmosphere. It is odorless,
tasteless, and colorless.
ammonia 0.1–1 Ammonia is a colorless gas with a pungent odor.
NMOCs 0.01–0.6 NMOCs are organic compounds (i.e., compounds that contain carbon).
(non-methane (Methane is an organic compound but is not considered an NMOC.)
organic NMOCs may occur naturally or be formed by synthetic chemical processes.
NMOCs most commonly found in landfills include acrylonitrile, benzene,
compounds)
1,1-dichloroethane, 1,2-cis dichloroethylene, dichloromethane, carbonyl
sulfide, ethyl-benzene, hexane, methyl ethyl ketone, tetrachloroethylene,
toluene, trichloroethylene, vinyl chloride, and xylenes.

sulfides 0–1 Sulfides (e.g., hydrogen sulfide, dimethyl sulfide, mercaptans) are naturally
occurring gases that give the landfill gas mixture its rotten-egg smell.
Sulfides can cause unpleasant odors even at very low concentrations.
hydrogen 0–0.2 Hydrogen is an odorless, colorless gas.
carbon monoxide 0–0.2 Carbon monoxide is an odorless, colorless gas.
59
Source: Tchobanoglous, Theisen, and Vigil 1993; EPA 1995

https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/hac/landfill/html/ch2.html
2. Sanitary Landfill Leachate composition
The major potential environmental impacts related to landfill leachate are
pollution of groundwater and surface waters.
Landfill leachate contains pollutants that can be categorized into four groups:
 Dissolved organic matter: quantified as Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) or
Total Organic Carbon (TOC), volatile fatty acids (that accumulate during the
acid phase of the waste stabilization.
 Inorganic macrocomponents: calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), sodium
(Na+), potassium (K+), ammonium (NH4 +), iron (Fe2+), manganese (Mn2+),
chloride (Cl–), sulfate ( SO4 2–) and hydrogen carbonate (HCO3–).
 Heavy metals: Heavy metals: cadmium (Cd2+), chromium (Cr3+), copper
(Cu2+), lead (Pb2+), nickel (Ni2+) and zinc (Zn2+).
 Xenobiotic organic compounds: (XOCs) originating from household or
industrial chemicals and present in relatively low concentrations (usually less
than 1 mg/l of individual compounds). These compounds include among
others a variety of aromatic hydrocarbons, phenols, chlorinated aliphatics,
pesticides, and plastizers.
* A xenobiotic is a chemical substance found within an organism that is not
naturally produced or expected to be present within the organism. 
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/10643380290813462 60
 3. Organic Waste Composting
Biological decomposition of organic constituents of wastes under
controlled conditions (~ 70% of MSW is decomposable)

61
3. Organic Waste Composting

Compost Rate Controlling Factors

1. Temperature
2. Moisture Content
3. Aeration
4. Carbon : Nitrogen
(C : N ratio)
5. Particle Size
6. Pile Geometry
7. Turning frequency
8. Types of Reactors
62
3. Organic Waste Composting
1. Chronological Temperature –
inside windrows

180
Temp. (deg.F)

160

140

120

100
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Time (days)

63
3. Organic Waste Composting
2. Effect of Moisture Content on Temperature -
Windrows

64
http://www.certifiedorganic.bc.ca/programs/osdp/I-050%20Compost%20Factsheet.pdf
3. Organic Waste Composting

3. Compost Aeration

Heat
Rises
Air (Oxygen)

65
3. Organic Waste Composting

4. Nutrients, C:N ratio (Carbon : Nitrogen)

MATERIAL
C/N RATIO

Activated
Sludge 6:1

Grass
Clippings 12-15:1

Mixed
Grasses 19:1

Sawdust
200-500:1

66
3. Organic Waste Composting

pH of Windrows
9.0

8.5

8.0

7.5
pH

7.0

6.5

6.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
time (days)

Windrow I Windrow II Windrow III Windrow IV

pH is not the critical parameter for composting because if other (above)

conditions are set properly then pH would settle within ‘normal’ range.

67
3. Organic Waste Composting
Tub Grinder
Compost Screening

Windrow

68
3. Organic Waste Composting

Composting units configurations

Commercial
Domestic

Rotating drums

69
 3. Organic Waste Composting
Compost Maturity
• Appearance and Odor
• Length of composting period
• Reheating temperature
• Reduction of Organic Matter
• C:N Ratio < 20
• Oxygen Uptake Rate
• Germination potential

80.0
75.0
% Volatile (dry basis)

70.0
65.0
60.0
Chronological 55.0

% VS – 50.0
45.0
Windrows 40.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
time (days)
70
4. Incineration / Combustion. Combustion is a chemical reaction

71
4. Incineration

4.1: Incineration: "Waste to Energy"

Mass Burn (MB) plants generate electricity and/or
steam from waste by feeding mixed municipal
waste into large furnaces dedicated solely to
burning trash and producing power.
70 of the 102 "Waste to Energy" facilities in the U.S.
utilize this process.
Norway incinerates all wastes to provide electricity.

Pre-screening and pre-sorting of wastes are essential

to maintain high process efficiency.

72
 Refuse Boiler
Stack Fabric Filter
Spray Dryer
Tipping
Floor
Ash Conveyer

Metal Recovery

Mass Burn Facility – Pinellas County

73
4. Incineration

Overhead Crane Compacter

Turbine Generator

Fabric Filter
74
4. Incineration

Typical plant performance of "Waste to Energy"

Combustion plants
• Combustion temperatures reach 2000° F (1093°C) with high
combustion efficiency;
• CO emissions of 15 to 40 ppm.
• Reactor exit temperatures are < 1200° F (649°C).
• Waste VOLUME reduction up to 90%, depending on the type of
waste.
• The amount of ash on a WEIGHT basis is as high as 25% of the
input.
• Emissions of tars, furans, dioxins, char, VOC's, particulates and
SOX are higher.
• Most "Waste to Energy" facilities require some form of pre-
sorting. In order to reduce the volumes of ash, inorganics are
sorted out. Incinerators cannot handle all types of waste
75
a global map is used for helping understand the status of MSW incineration around the
world (see Fig. 1). Most plants are located in the EU, the U.S., and East Asia. Other
regions such as Africa rarely use MSW incineration. Countries in Western and Northern
Europe with good economic level have larger incineration capacities than other
European areas.
(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956053X17302313)

https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0- 4. Incineration
S0956053X17302313-gr1_lrg.jpg 76
4. Incineration 4.2: Refuse-derived fuel (RDF)
Incineration
Refuse-derived fuel (RDF) plants remove recyclable or unburnable
materials and shred or process the remaining trash into a uniform
fuel.
A dedicated combustor, or furnace, may be located on-site to burn
the fuel and generate power; or the RDF may be transported off
site for use as a fuel in boilers that burn other fossil fuel.
The production of RDF may involve the following steps:
• Bag splitting/Shredding
• Size screening
• Magnetic separation
• Air classifier (density separation)
• Coarse shredding
• Refining separation by infrared separation
77
Using raw unprocessed MSW as a fuel is problematic due to the
heterogeneous nature of the material.
It also has a low heat value and high ash and moisture content.
This makes it difficult for plant designers and operators to always provide
acceptable pollution free levels of combustion.  
Waste with a high organic (carbon) content is suitable for briquetting and
pelletising after non-combustible and recyclable materials separated.
These processes involve the compaction of the waste at high
temperatures and very high pressures.
The organic matter is compressed in a die to produce briquettes or pellets.
*It is important to note that using processed waste (where recyclable and
non combustible components have been removed), for power
generation will dramatically increase the efficiency of the waste to
energy process, but at an increased cost due to the increased handling
of the product. 4. Incineration
78
http://www.see.murdoch.edu.au/resources/info/Tech/waste/
 79
http://www.sinoshredder.com/refuse-derived-fuel-rdf/
4. Incineration
RDF manufacturing process outline. The product is then compacted or briquetted for
use.

http://www.see.murdoch.edu.au/resources/info/Tech/waste/
4. Incineration 80
 4. Incineration
System Components:
• Refuse receipt/storage
Air Pollution Control:
• Refuse feeding
• Remove certain waste components
• Grate system
• Air supply • Good Combustion Practices
• Furnace • Emission Control Devices
• Boiler

Energy Loss (Radiation)

• Particulates
Waste • Acid Gases
Flue Gas • NOx
• CO
• Organic Hazardous Air
Pollutants
Mass Loss (unburned • Metal Hazardous Air
carbon in Ash) Pollutants 81
4. Incineration
Controlled Waste Incineration - Advantages
• Volume and weight reduced (approx. 90% vol. and 75% wt
reduction)
• Waste reduction is immediate, no long term residency
required
• Destruction in seconds where LF requires 100s of years
• Incineration can be done at generation site
• Air discharges can be controlled
• Ash residue is usually non-putrescible, sterile, inert
• Small disposal area required
• Cost can be offset by heat recovery/ sale of energy1 ton of
waste creates 3.5 MW of energy (eq. to 300 kg of fuel oil)
powers 70 homes
• Biogenic portion of waste is considered CO2 neutral (tree uses
more CO2 during its lifecycle than released during combustion)
82
4. Incineration
Important Process
Waste Incineration - Parameters:
Disadvantages Three Ts
• High capital cost
• Skilled operators are required
• Time
(particularly for boiler operations) • Temperature
• Some materials are noncombustible
• Some material require • Turbulence
supplemental fuel
• Public disapproval
 Risk imposed rather than
voluntary
 Incineration will decrease
property value (perceived not
necessarily true)
 Distrust of government/industry
ability to regulate
83
4. Incineration
Schematic
Presentation
of Bottom Ash
Treatment

Ash Reuse Options:

• Construction fill
• Road construction
• Landfill daily cover
• Cement block production
• Treatment of acid mine
drainage 84
4. Incineration

https://www.energy.ca.gov/biomass/
85
 Plant biomass contains which compounds?

< 200°C

> 500°C
< 400°C

86
https://www.slideshare.net/Biorefinery/biotechnological-routes-to-biomass-conversion
 5. Pyrolysis
• Pyrolysis is thermal decomposition of organic matter into char,
tars, oil and hydrocarbon gas in the total absence of oxygen.
• The end products of Pyrolysis are carbon black, oil that can be
sent back to a refinery and some hydrocarbon gases that can
be used to make steam or electricity.
• A common example of a Pyrolysis process is charcoal
briquettes.
• Most Pyrolysis systems are very selective in the type of
material they can process.
• Volatile metals (e.g. mercury, cadmium, potassium, sodium,
zinc) can be separated in the process.
• Pyrolysis is applied for processing tires.

www.pyrolysisoil.net
87
 5. Pyrolysis

Cyclones

88
https://www.technology.matthey.com/article/62/1/118-130/
 5. Pyrolysis: Limitations and Concerns
• Pyrolysis can not handle a wide variety of wastes.
• The technology requires drying of material prior to
treatment.
• There is a concern about hazardous chlorinated
compounds as they tend to form very toxic and stable
dioxins and furans as products of incomplete
combustion.
• Pyrolysis is not effective for inorganic wastes.
• When the off-gases are cooled, liquids condense,
producing an oil/tar residue and contaminated water.
These oils and tars may require special handling and
disposal due to their hazardous nature.
http://www.cpeo.org/techtree/ttdescript/pyrols.htm
89
How do we know the composition of biomass? How to
decide what Temperature is needed for pyrolysis?

Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) is a method of

thermal analysis in which changes in physical and
chemical properties of materials are measured as a
function of increasing temperature (with constant
heating rate), or as a function of time (with constant
temperature and/or constant mass ...

90
Typical Product Weight Yields from Wood (Dry Feed Basis) by Different
Modes of Pyrolysis (source: https://www.technology.matthey.com/article/62/1/118-130/)
Mode Conditions Liquid Solid Gas

Fast ~500°C 75 wt% 12 wt% 13 wt%

Short hot vapour residence time (RT) (bio-oil) char
Short solid RT up to 10 s
Intermediate ~400°C 40 wt% in 40 wt% 20 wt%
Moderate hot vapour RT 5–20 s; two char
Moderate solid RT up to 20 min. phases
Slow pyrolysis ~400°C 30 wt% in 35 wt% 35 wt%
(Carbonisation) Long hot vapour and solid RT up to two char
hours depending on technology; phases
Gasification ~750–900°C Minimal Up to 2 Up to 98
(allothermal) Short hot vapour RT, 5 s wt% wt%
Short solid RT char
Torrefaction ~250–300°C 0 wt% (if 70–80 wt 15 wt%
(slow) Solids residence time up to 30 mins vapours %
condensed).
Solids
Up to 15 wt
residence
%, if not.
time solid 92
5. Pyrolysis
 6. Gasification : SynGas
• PARTIAL oxidation process using air, pure oxygen, oxygen
enriched air, or steam. Carbon is converted into synthesis gas or
syngas. The formation of syngas is strongly endothermic
and requires high temperatures.
•  Syngas, is a mixture of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide
and hydrogen.
• Syngas can be produced from many sources, including
natural gas, coal, biomass, or virtually any hydrocarbon
feedstock, by reaction with steam or oxygen.
• Syngas is a crucial intermediate resource for production of
hydrogen, ammonia, methanol, and synthetic hydrocarbon

http://www.syngaschem.com/syngaschem
93
 6. Gasification : SynGas

http://www.syngaschem.com/syngaschem
94
https://www.slideshare.net/reddyas/biomass-gasification-58749293
6. Gasification

95
6. Gasification

96
https://www.netl.doe.gov/research/coal/energy-systems/fuels/hydrogen-rd
7. PLASMA is considered a 4th state. Electricity is fed to a
torch, which has two electrodes, creating an arc. Inert gas is
passed through the arc, heating the process gas to internal
temperatures as high as 25,000◦F = 13,871 ͦC

97
7. Plasma gasification:
• CONVERT EVERYTHING: Virtually any kind of waste (solid,
liquid, or gas) except nuclear material. This includes MSW,
auto shredder residue, coal fines, medical waste, hazardous
waste, sludge, oily water, tank bottoms, landfill gas, dioxins,
PCB's, pesticides, paint, tires, contaminated soil, incinerator
ash, etc.
• COMPLETE CONVERSION : > 99%. This is the ultimate
recycling system.
• VALUABLE PRODUCTS. The waste is converted into
valuable products, including electricity, ethanol, vitrified glass,
metal and sodium bisulphate. Molten metals are separated for
recycle. Other valuable derivative products can also be
produced. Non-carbon-based materials, including silica,
rocks, concrete, soil, glass, gravel, minerals, etc. are vitrified
or thermally fused into glass by the thermal transformer.
98
Solid wastes treatment overview:

99