Machine Design –II

• Syllabus discussion

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 Machine Design –II
• Machine Design
A machine is a combination of several machine elements
arranged to work together as a whole to accomplish
specific purposes. Machine design involves designing the
elements and arranging them optimally to obtain some
useful work.

Machine Design is use of scientific principles ,technical

information ,and imagination in the description of a
machine or mechanical system to perform specific
functions with maximum economy and efficiency.
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 Types of design
There may be several types of design such as
• Adaptive design
This is based on existing design, for example, standard products or systems
adopted for a new application. Conveyor belts, control system of machines
and mechanisms or haulage systems are some of the examples where
existing design systems are adapted for a particular use.

• Developmental design
Here we start with an existing design but finally a modified design is
obtained. A new model of a car is a typical example of a developmental
design .
• New design
This type of design is an entirely new one but based on existing scientific
principles. No scientific invention is involved but requires creative thinking
to solve a problem. Examples of this type of design may include designing
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Types of design based on methods
• Rational design
This is based on determining the stresses and strains of components and
thereby deciding their dimensions.

• Empirical design
This is based on empirical formulae which in turn is based on experience and
experiments. For example, when we tighten a nut on a bolt the force exerted
or the stresses induced cannot be determined exactly but experience shows
that the tightening force may be given by P=284d where, d is the bolt
diameter in mm and P is the applied force in kg. There is no mathematical
backing of this equation but it is based on observations and experience.

• Industrial design
These are based on industrial considerations and norms viz. market survey,
external look, production facilities, low cost, use of existing standard
products.
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Factors to be considered in machine design
There are many factors to be considered while
attacking a design problem. In many cases these
are a common sense approach to solving a problem.
(a) What device or mechanism to be used? This would decide the
relative arrangement of the constituent elements.
(b) Material
(c) Forces on the elements
(d) Size, shape and space requirements. The final weight of the
product is also a major concern.
(e) The method of manufacturing the components and their
assembly.
(f) How will it operate?
(g) Reliability and safety aspects
(h) Inspectibility
(i) Maintenance, cost and aesthetics of the designed product.
Frictional resistance and lubrication, Use of standard parts, Workshop facilities
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 Steps to be followed by a designer

• Define the problem.

• Make preliminary design decisions.
• Make design sketches.
• Carry out design analysis and optimization.
• Design the elements for strength and
durability.
• Prepare documentations to be followed for
manufacture.
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 Mechanical properties of common engineering
materials
• Elasticity-property of a material to regain its original shape after
deformation when the external forces are removed
• Plasticity-permanent deformation of material when the stress level
exceeds the yield point
• Hardness-that enables it to resist permanent deformation, penetration,
indentation etc.
• Ductility-enables it to be drawn out or elongated to an appreciable extent
before rupture occurs
• Malleability-special case of ductility where it can be rolled into
• thin sheets but it is not necessary to be so strong
• Brittleness-
• Resilience-enables it to resist shock and impact by storing energy
• Toughness- twisted, bent or stretched under impact load or high stress
before rupture
• Creep-constant load over a long period of time
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 Engg. Material Classification
• Common engineering materials can be broadly
classified into metals and non-metals.
• Metals include ferrous and non-ferrous metal and
the nonmetals include timber, leather, rubber and a
large variety of polymers.
• Among the ferrous metals different varieties of cast
iron, wrought iron and alloy steels are extensively
used in industry. There are also a large variety of
timber, leather and polymers that are used in
industry.
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 Steel
• It is an alloy of iron and carbon, with carbon
content up to a maximum of 1.5%.
1. Dead mild steel — up to 0.15% carbon
2. Low carbon or mild steel — 0.15% to 0.45%
carbon
3. Medium carbon steel — 0.45% to 0.8%
carbon
4. High carbon steel — 0.8% to 1.5% carbon

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• 20C8 means a carbon steel 0.2 percent on
average carbon and 0.8 percent on an
Average manganese.

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 Some basic issues of simple stresses
• Tensile stress
• Compressive stress
• Bearing stress: When a body is pressed against
another, the compressive stress developed is
termed bearing stress.
• Shear stress :When forces are transmitted from
one part of a body to other, the stresses
developed in a plane parallel to the applied force
are the shear stresses
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 Manufacturing considerations in Machine
design Manufacturing Processes
• Primary shaping processes.
• Machining processes.
• Surface finishing processes.
• Joining processes.
• Processes effecting change in properties.
• Other considerations in Machine design
• 1. Workshop facilities.
• 2. Number of machines to be manufactured
• 3. Cost of construction
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Interchangeability

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 Stress
• When some external system of forces or loads
acts on a body, the internal forces (equal and
opposite) are set up at various sections of the
body, which resist the external forces. This
internal force per unit area at any section of
the body is known as stress. It is denoted by a
Greek letter sigma

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 Strain
• When a system of forces or loads act on a
body, it undergoes some deformation. This
deformation per unit length is known as Greek
letter epsilon (ε). Mathematically,
• Strain, ε= δl / l
or
• Where δl =Change in length of the body,
and
• l= Original length of the body.

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• Young's Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity
• Hooke's law* states that when a material is loaded within
elastic limit, the stress is directly proportional to strain, i.e.

• where E is a constant of proportionality known as Young's

modulus or modulus of elasticity.
• In S.I. units, it is usually expressed in GPa i.e. GN/m2 or
kN/mm2.

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 Shear Stress and Strain
• When a body is subjected to two equal and
opposite forces acting tangentially across the
resisting section, as a result of which the body
tends to shear off the section, then the stress
induced is called shear stress.

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• The corresponding strain is known as
deformation accompanying the shear stress.
The shear stress and shear strain are denoted
by the Greek letters tau (τ) and phi (φ)

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 Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity

• It has been found experimentally that within

the elastic limit, the shear stress is directly
proportional to shear strain. Mathematically

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 Linear and Lateral Strain
• Consider a circular bar of diameter
• Fig. (a).

It is thus obvious, that every direct stress is accompanied by a strain in its

own direction which is known as linear strain and an opposite kind of
strain in every direction, at right angles to it, is known as lateral strain.

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 Poisson's Ratio
• It has been found experimentally that when a
body is stressed within elastic limit, the lateral
strain bears a constant ratio to the linear
strain, Mathematically,

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 Volumetric Strain
• When a body is subjected to a system of forces, it
undergoes some changes in its dimensions.
• In other words, the volume of the body is
changed. The ratio of the change in volume to the
• original volume is known as volumetric strain.
Mathematically, volumetric strain=
• Where δV = Change in volume, and V = Original
volume

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 Bulk Modulus
• When a body is subjected to three mutually
perpendicular stresses, of equal intensity, then
the ratio of the direct stress to the
corresponding volumetric strain is known as
bulk modulus. It is usually denoted by K.
Mathematically, bulk modulus,

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 Factor of Safety
• It is defined, in general, as the ratio of the maximum stress to the working stress.
Mathematically,

• Factor of safety = Maximum stress/ Working or design stress

• In case of ductile materials e.g. mild steel, where the yield point is clearly defined,
the factor of safety is based upon the yield point stress. In such cases,
• Factor of safety = Yield point stress/ Working or design stress

• In case of brittle materials e.g. cast iron, the yield point is not well defined as for
ductile materials. Therefore, the factor of safety for brittle materials is based on
ultimate stress.

• Factor of safety = Ultimate stress/ Working or design stress

• This relation may also be used for ductile materials.

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 Selection of Factor of Safety
• The selection of a proper factor of safety to be used in designing any machine
component depends upon a number of considerations, such as the material,
mode of manufacture, type of stress, general service conditions and shape of the
parts. Before selecting a proper factor of safety, a design engineer should
consider the following points :
1. The reliability of the properties of the material and change of these properties
during service ;
2. The reliability of test results and accuracy of application of these results to actual
machine parts ;
3. The reliability of applied load ;
4. The certainty as to exact mode of failure ;
5. The extent of simplifying assumptions ;
6. The extent of localised stresses ;
7. The extent of initial stresses set up during manufacture ;
8. The extent of loss of life if failure occurs ; and
9. The extent of loss of property if failure occurs

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Stresses in Composite Bars

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Torsional Shear Stress

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 Principal Stresses and Principal Planes
At any point in a strained material, there are
three planes, mutually perpendicular to each
other which carry direct stresses only and no
shear stress.
It may be noted that out of these three direct
stresses, one will be maximum and the other
will be minimum. These perpendicular planes
which have no shear stress are known as
principal planes and the direct stresses along
these planes are known as principal stresses.
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Determination of Principal Stresses for a Member
Subjected to Bi-axial
Stress

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Theories of Failure Under Static Load
1. Maximum principal (or normal) stress theory
(also known as Rankine’s theory).
2. Maximum shear stress theory (also known as
Guest’s or Tresca’s theory).
3. Maximum principal (or normal) strain theory
(also known as Saint Venant theory).
4. Maximum strain energy theory (also known as
Haigh’s theory).
5. Maximum distortion energy theory (also known
as Hencky and Von Mises theory).
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 Maximum Principal or Normal Stress Theory
(Rankine’s Theory)
• According to this theory, the failure or yielding
occurs at a point in a member when the
maximum principal or normal stress in a bi-
axial stress system reaches the limiting
strength of the material in a simple tension
test.

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• Since the maximum principal or normal stress
theory is based on failure in tension or
compression and ignores the possibility of
failure due to shearing stress, therefore it is
not used for ductile materials.
• However, for brittle materials which are
relatively strong in shear but weak in tension
or compression,this theory is generally used.

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 Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Guest’s or
Tresca’s Theory)
• According to this theory, the failure or yielding
occurs at a point in a member when the
maximum shear stress in a bi-axial stress
system reaches a value equal to the shear
stress at yield point in a simple tension test.
Mathematically,

This theory is mostly used for designing

members of ductile materials.
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 Maximum Principal Strain Theory (Saint
Venant’s Theory)
• According to this theory, the failure or yielding
occurs at a point in a member when the
maximum principal (or normal) strain in a bi-
axial stress system reaches the limiting value
of strain (i.e. strain at yield point) as
determined from a simple tensile test. The
maximum principal (or normal) strain in a bi-
axial stress system is given by

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 Maximum Strain Energy Theory (Haigh’s
Theory)
• According to this theory, the failure or yielding
occurs at a point in a member when the strain
energy per unit volume in a bi-axial stress
system reaches the limiting strain energy (i.e.
strain energy at the yield point ) per unit
volume as determined from simple tension test.

• This theory may be used for ductile materials.

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 Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (Hencky
and Von Mises Theory)
• According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a
point in a member when the distortion strain energy (also
called shear strain energy) per unit volume in a bi-axial
stress system reaches the limiting distortion energy (i.e.
distortion energy at yield point) per unit volume as
determined from a simple tension test. Mathematically,
the maximum distortion energy theory for yielding is
expressed as

• This theory is mostly used for ductile materials in place of

maximum strain energy theory.
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The load on a bolt consists of an axial pull of 10 kN
together with a transverse shear force of 5 kN. Find the
diameter of bolt required according to
1. Maximum principal stress theory;
2. Maximum shear stress theory;
3. Maximum principal strain theory;
4. Maximum strain energy theory; and
5. Maximum distortion energy theory.
Take permissible tensile stress at elastic limit = 100 MPa
and poisson’s ratio = 0.3.
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• A cylindrical shaft made of steel of yield
strength 700 MPa is subjected to static loads
consisting of bending moment 10 kN-m and a
torsional moment 30 kN-m. Determine the
diameter of the shaft using two different
theories of failure, and assuming a factor of
safety of 2. Take E = 210 GPa and poisson's
ratio = 0.25.

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A mild steel shaft of 50 mm diameter is subjected to
a bending moment of 2000 N-m and a torque T. If
the yield point of the steel in tension is 200 MPa,
find the maximum value of this torque without
causing yielding of the shaft according to
1. the maximum principal stress;
2. the maximum shear stress; and 3. the maximum
distortion strain energy theory of yielding.

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